TheHumanBody:

AnOrientation
Chapter1

Definitions

AnatomyThestudy
ofthestructureof
bodypartsandtheir
relationshipstoone
another.

PhysiologyThe
studyofthefunction
oflivingorganisms.

TopicsofAnatomy

GrossAnatomy
Thestudyoflargebodystructuresvisibleto
thenakedeye

TopicsofAnatomy

RegionalAnatomy
Thestudyofallstructures(bloodvessels,
nerves,muscles)locatedinaparticular
regionofthebody

TopicsofAnatomy

SystemicAnatomy
Thegrossanatomyofthebodystudied
systembysystem

TopicsofAnatomy

SurfaceAnatomy
Thestudyofinternalbodystructuresasthey
relatetotheoverlyingskin

TopicsofAnatomy

MicroscopicAnatomy
Thestudyofstructurestoosmalltobeseen
withouttheaidofamicroscope

TopicsofAnatomy

CellularAnatomy
Thestudyofcellsofthebody

TopicsofAnatomy

Histology
Thestudyofthemicroscopicstructureof
tissues

TopicsofAnatomy

DevelopmentalAnatomy
Thestudyofchangesinanindividualfrom
conceptiontooldage

TopicsofAnatomy

Embryology
Thestudyofthedevelopmentalchangesthat
occurbeforebirth

ComplementarityofStructure
andFunction

Theprincipleofcomplementarityof
structureandfunctionimpliesthatfunction
isdependentuponstructure
Anatomyandphysiologyaretrulyinseparable
sciences
Inarchitectureformfollowsfunction
Adescriptionofanatomyisfollowedbyan
explanationofitsfunction,thestructural
characteristicscontributingtothatphysiologic
function

LevelsofStructuralComplexity

Chemical
Molecules
Cells
Tissue
Organ
OrganSystem
Organism

LevelsofStructuralComplexity

ChemicalLevel
Thesimplest
levelof
structural
organization

LevelsofStructuralComplexity

Molecules
Buildingblocks
ofmatterthat
combinetoform
water,sugarand
proteins

LevelsofStructuralComplexity

CellularLevel
Thesmallest
unitsofliving
tissue
Inthisexample
thetissueis
smoothmuscle
fiber

LevelsofStructuralComplexity

TissueLevel
Consistsof
groupsofsimilar
cellsthathavea
common
function

epithelium
muscle
connective
nervous

LevelsofStructuralComplexity

OrganLevel
Astructure
composedofat
leasttwotissue
types(with
fourthemost
common)that
performsa
specific
functionfor
thebody

LevelsofStructuralComplexity

OrganSystem
Level
Organsthat
cooperatewith
oneanotherto
performa
common
function

LevelsofStructuralComplexity

OrganismLevel
Thehighest
levelof
organization,
theliving
organism

OrganSystems

The11humanorgansystems
Integumentary,skeletal,muscular,nervous,
endocrine,cardiovascular,lymphatic,
respiratory,digestive,urinary,and
reproductive

MaintainingLifeFunctions

MaintenanceofBoundaries
Movement
Responsiveness
Digestion
Metabolism
Excretion
Reproduction
Growth

MaintainingLifeFunctions

Maintenanceof
boundaries

Everyorganismmust
controlitsinternal
environment
Needforselectively
permeable
membranes
Protectionfrom
externalenvironment

MaintainingLifeFunctions

Movement

Allvoluntary
movementofskeletal
muscles
Allmovementsofthe
involuntarymuscles
Dependentuponthe
musclecellbeingable
tocontract

MaintainingLifeFunctions

Responsiveness

Theabilitytosense
changesinthe
environmentandto
reacttothechanges
Thenervoussystemis
theprimaryexample
Relatedalsoto
learningtomonitor
keystimuli

MaintainingLifeFunctions

Digestion

Theprocessof
breakingdownfood
stuffsforabsorption
Thedigestivesystem
doesthisforthe
entirebody
Thecirculatory
systemdistributesthe
nutrients

MaintainingLifeFunctions

Metabolism

Encompassesthe
chemicalreactionsofthe
body
Itincludesbreaking
downmoleculesoffood
aswellasformingnew
structures
Regulatedinlargepart
byhormones

MaintainingLife:
FunctionalCharacteristics

Excretion

Theprocessof
removingwastes
fromthebody
Severalsystemsoften
participatetocarry
outthisprocess
Necessaryinorderto
maintaininternal
environment

MaintainingLifeFunctions

Reproduction

Canoccuratthecellular
ororganismlevel
Cellularreproductionis
fortissuerepair
Organismreproductionis
forprocreation
Thereexistsadivisionof
laborofthisfunction

MaintainingLifeFunctions

Growth

Anincreaseinthesizeof
thebodypartororganism
Accomplishedby
increasingthenumberof
cells
Cellincreasemustbeata
fasterratethancellloss

SurvivalNeeds

Nutrients
Oxygen
Water
BodyTemperature
Atmosphericpressure

SurvivalNeeds

Nutrients

Substancesusedforenergy
andcellbuilding
Carbohydratesarefuelfor
bodycells
Proteinsforbuildingcell
structures
Fatsforinsulationand
energyreserves
Minerals&vitaminsfor
chemicalreaction

SurvivalNeeds

Oxygen

Oxygenneededfor
chemicalreactions
Cellswillsurvive
onlyafewminutes
withoutoxygen
Madeavailableby
therespiratoryand
cardiovascular
systems

SurvivalNeeds

Water

Itprovidesthe
environmentfor
chemicalreactions
Fluidbaseforbody
secretionsand
excretions
Obtainedbyfoods
andliquidsingested
Lostbyevaporation
fromskinandlungs

SurvivalNeeds

Bodytemperature

Bodytemperaturemustbe
maintainedforchemical
reaction
Toolow,reactionswillslow
orstop
Toohigh,chemical
reactionsoccuratarate
thatcausesbodyproteinsto
losetheirshapeandstop
functioning

SurvivalNeeds

Atmospheric
pressure

Breathingandair
exchangeis
dependenton
appropriatepressure
Inadequatepressure
limitstheabilityof
thebodytosupport
metabolism

Homeostasis

Definition
ControlMechanisms
Negativefeedback
Positivefeedback
Homeostaticimbalances

Homeostasis

Theabilityofthebodytomaintain
relativelystableinternalconditionseven
thoughthereiscontinuouschangeinthe
outsideworld
Astateofdynamicequilibrium
Thebodyfunctionswithinrelativelynarrow
limits
Allbodysystemscontributetoits
maintenance

ControlMechanisms

Regardlessofthefactororevent(variable)
beingregulated,allhomeostaticcontrol
mechanismshaveatleastthree
interdependentcomponents
Receptor(stimuliofchangeisdetected)
Controlcenter(determinesresponse)
Effector(bodilyresponsetothestimulus)

ControlMechanisms

Regulationof
homeostasisis
accomplished
throughthe
nervousand
endocrinesystems

ControlMechanisms

Achainofevents...
Stimulusproducesachangeinavariable
Changeisdetectedbyasensoryreceptor
Sensoryinputinformationissentalongan
afferentpathwaytocontrolcenter
Controlcenterdeterminestheresponse
Outputinformationsentalongefferent
pathwaytoactivateresponse
Monitoringoffeedbacktodetermineif
additionalresponseisrequired

NegativeFeedbackMechanisms

Mostcontrolmechanismsarenegative
feedbackmechanisms
Anegativefeedbackmechanism
decreasestheintensityofthestimulusor
eliminatesit
Thenegativefeedbackmechanismcauses
thesystemtochangeintheopposite
directionfromthestimulus
Example:homeheatingthermostat

PositiveFeedbackMechanisms

Apositivefeedbackmechanismenhances
orexaggeratestheoriginalstimulusso
thatactivityisaccelerated
Itisconsideredpositivebecauseitresults
inchangeoccurringinthesamedirection
astheoriginalstimulus
Positivefeedbackmechanismsusually
controlinfrequenteventssuchasblood
clottingorchildbirth

PositiveFeedbackMechanism

Breakortearinblood
vesselwall
Clottingoccursas
plateletsadheretosite
andreleasechemicals
Releasedchemical
attractmoreplatelets
Clottingproceedsuntil
breakissealedby
newlyformedclot

HomeostaticImbalances

Mostdiseasescausehomeostatic
imbalances(chills,fevers,elevatedwhite
bloodcountsetc)
Agingreducesourabilitytomaintain
homeostasis
Heatstress

TheLanguageofAnatomy

Anatomicalposition
Directionalterms
Regionalterms
Bodyplanesandsections
Bodycavitiesandmembranes
Abdominopelvicregionsandquadrants

AnatomicalPosition

Anatomicalposition
Bodyerectwithfeet
together
Armsatsidewith
palmsforward

Directionaltermsare
usedtodescribea
bodystructureor
limbsegmentasit
relatestothe
anatomicalposition

TheLanguageofAnatomy:

Superior

Inferior

Towardtheheadendor
upperpartofastructureor
thebody
Awayfromtheheadendor
towardthelowerpartofa
structureorthebody

TheLanguageofAnatomy:

Anterior

Towardoratthefrontof
thebody(ventral)

Posterior

Towardthebackofthe
body;behind(dorsal)

TheLanguageofAnatomy:

Medial

Towardoratthemidlineof
thebody
Lateral
Awayfromthemidlineof
thebody
Intermediate Betweenamoremedialand
amorelateralstructure

TheLanguageofAnatomy:

Proximal

Distal
a

Closertotheoriginofthe
bodypart,orthepointof
attachmentofalimbtothe
bodytrunk
Fartherfromtheoriginof
bodypartorthepointof
attachmentofalimbtothe
bodytrunk

TheLanguageofAnatomy:

Superficial

Deep

Towardoratthebody
surface
awayfromthebody
surface;moreinternal

Regionalterms

Therearetwo
fundamental
divisionsofourbody
Axial
Head,
Neck
Trunk

Appendicular
Shoulder/Arm
Pelvis/Leg

Regionaltermsare
usedtodesignate
specificareaswithin
themajorbody
divisions

Carpal/wrist
Oral/mouth
Femoral/thigh
RefertoFigure1.7

BodyPlanesandSections

Inanatomy,thebody
issectionedalonga
flatsurfacecalleda
plane
Themostfrequently
usedbodyplanesare
sagittal,frontaland
transversewhichare
atrightanglesto
eachother

BodyPlanes

Thesagittalplane
liesverticallyand
dividesthebodyinto
rightandleftparts

BodyPlanes

Thefrontalplane
dividesthebodyinto
anteriorand
posteriorsections
Alsocalledacoronal

BodyPlanes

Atransverseplane
runshorizontallyand
dividesthebodyinto
superiorandinferior
sections

Bodycavitiesandmembranes

Dorsalbodycavity
Ventralbodycavity
Membranes
Otherbodycavities

HumanBodyPlan

Allvertebratessharethesamebasicfeatures

Tubewithinatubebodyplan
Bilateralsymmetry
Dorsalhollownervecord
Notochordandvertebrae
Segmentation
Pharyngealpouches

HumanBodyPlan

TubeWithinATube

Digestiveorgansformatubethatrunsthrough
theaxialregionofthebody,whichitselfcanbe
viewedasalargertube

Bilateral
Symmetry

Eachbodyhalfis
amirrorimageof
theotherhalf
Structuresinthe
midlineplaneare
unpairedby
symmetricalleft
andrightsides

DorsalHollowNerveCord

Allvertebrateembryoshaveahollowcord
runningalongtheirbackinthemedianplane
Thecorddevelopsintothebrainandspinalcord

NotochordandVertebrae

Thenotochordisastiffeningrodinthebackjustdeep
tothespinalcord
Thenotochordintheembryoisreplacebyvertebrae

Segmentation

Segmentsarerepeatingunitsofsimilarstructurethat
runfromtheheadalongthelengthofthetrunk
Example:areabetweentheribs/spinalnerves

PharyngealPouches

Inhumansthepharynxispartofthedigestivetube
Intheembryonicstage,ourpharynxhasasetof
pouchesthatcorrespondtothecleftsoffishgills

PharyngealPouches

Pharyngealpouchesgiverisetosome
structuresinourheadandneck
Example:Themiddleearcavitywhich
runsfromtheeardrumtothepharynx

BodyCavities

Bodycavities

Dorsalbody
cavityis
dividedintoa
cranialcavity
whichencases
thebrain,and
thevertebral
cavitywhich
encasesthe
spinalcord

Bodycavities

Theventral
bodycavity
housesthe
visceralorgans
Theventral
bodycavityis
dividedinto
thethoracic,
abdominal,
andpelvic
cavities

ThoracicCavity

Thethoracic
cavityis
surroundedby
theribsand
musclesofthe
chest
Itisfurther
dividedinto
plueralcavities
mediastinum
pericardial

AbdominopelvicCavity

Abdominopelvic
cavityliesbelowthe
diaphragm
Itisfurtherdivided
into..
Abdominalcavity
Stomach,intestines,
spleen,liver

Pelviccavity
Bladder,rectum,
andsome
reproductiveorgans

MembranesinVentralCavity

Serousmembrane(serosa)isathin
doublelayeredmembranethatcoversthe
ventralbodycavityandoutersurfaceof
theorgans
Parietalserosaisthelayerofthemembrane
thatlinesthewallsofthecavity
Visceralserosaisthelayerthatcoversthe
organsinthecavity
Serousfluidisalubricationfoundbetween
thetwoserosamembranes

MembranesintheVentralCavity

Specificserousmembranesarenamed
forthecavityinwhichtheyarefound
Parietalandvisceralpericardiumsurrounds
theheart
Parietalandvisceralpleurasurroundsthe
lungs
Parietalandvisceralperitoneumcoversthe
abdominalcavity

SerousMembraneRelationship

Aserous
membrane
needsto
viewedas
adouble
layer
membrane
separated
byfluid

SerousMembrane
Theserousmembraneisa
Relationship
doublelayerseparatedbya
thinlubricatingfluid
Theinnerviscerallayercovers
theorgan(heart,lung,etc)
Theouterparietallayerlines
thebodycavity
Althoughthereisapotential
spaceinactualitythe
membraneslieclosetoone
another

OtherBodyCavities

Inadditiontothelarge,closedbody
cavitiestherearealsomanysmallerbody
cavities

Oralanddigestivecavities
Nasalcavities
Orbitalcavities
Middleearcavities
Synovivalcavities

OtherBodyCavities

AbdominopelvicRegions

Anatomistsoftendividethebodycavityintonine
smallerregionsforstudy

AbdominopelvicRegions

Anatomistsoftendividethebodycavityintonine
smallerregionsforstudy

AbdominalQuadrants

Medicalpersonnelusuallyuseasimplerscheme
tolocalizeanddescribetheconditionoforgans
withintheabdominopelviccavity

TheHumanBody
AnOrientation