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HEIL
1
TRAINING AGENDA
HANDS ON LEARNING!!
Limitation of Inspection
Specification discussion
What is SPC?
Why SPC is a better?
How SPC works?
Control Chart
You may learn to like statistics.
FF EXERCISE
EXERCISE
IMAGINE FOR ONE BRIEF MOMENT THAT EACH OF THE ONE HUNDRED
AND FORTY-ONE WORDS OF THIS PARAGRAPH IS A SEPARATE
COMPONENT FORM A FIRST SHIFT RUN OF FOURTEEN-INCH
FLYWHEELS. YOU ARE ONE OF FIVE INSPECTORS PERFORMING THE
FINAL INSPECTION OF THSES FINSISHED COMPONENTS WHICH WERE
PRODUCED ON FOUR FAIRLY SMALL DIAL INDEX MACHINES THAT ARE
NOT BEING CONTROLLED BY THE USE OF STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES.
AS CAN BE EXPECTED FROM AN OPERATION OF THIS NATURE, THERE
ARE A NUMBER OF DEFECTIVES COMPONENTS BEING MADE. EACH
WORD THAT CONTAINS AN F REPRESENTS A DEFECTIVE COMPONENT.
HOW MANY OF THE DEFECTIVES ARE YOU ABLE TO FIND? CHECK AGAIN
AND INSPECT FOR THE PRESENTS OF F'S. WRITE YOUR FINAL COUNT
IN THE BOTTOM LEFT HAND CORNER OF THIS PAGE. THIS EXAMPLE
SHOULD GIVE YOU A FAIR IDEA OF HOW RELIABLE 100% INSPECTION
CAN BE.
3
INSPECTION
Draw sample
YE
S
Meets spec. ?
ACCEPT
middle of spec?
Same as before?
N
O
REJECT
Same as before?
INSPECTION
Lower Spec.
A
B
What's the difference between ball A and B?
Why is the spec there and not somewhere else?
What is the purpose of the spec?
5
Great!!!
I'm in spec.
SPECIFICATION
Hey!!!!!
But I'm in spec.
SPECIFICATION
TARGET
Every specification has a TARGET.
The upper and lower specification
is meant to serve as a
guide line. What you
really want is the stuff
that hits the TARGET.
SCREW SPECIFICATION
SCREW TOLERANCE = +/- .02"
UPPER SPEC = .27
TARGET= .25
LOWER SPEC = .23
NUT SPECIFICATION
NUT TOLERANCE = +/- .02"
UPPER SPEC = .28
TARGET= .26
LOWER SPEC = .24
10
COMBINED TOLERANCE
SCREW
UPPER SPEC = .27
SCREW = 26.8"
TARGET= .25
LOWER SPEC = .23
NUT
NUT = 24.8"
TARGET= .26
LOWER SPEC = .24
11
LEANRING 1
Meeting specification
is not enough
we need a way to
communicate more.
What ???
12
Ex
am
pl
e
Country X
10,000 Rs/Month
Average
Income
Country Y
11000 Rs/Month
Country X
8000
12000
10000
9000
11000
Avg.
10000
Std dev.
1414
Country Y
46000
3000
1000
3000
2000
11000
17516
14
LEANRING 2
Meeting specification is not enough
we need a way to communicate
How close to target
What is SPC?
Statistical Process Control
It is a prevention tool
16
WHY SPC?
Inspection does not assure quality
17
JUST KIDDING!
It is simple and easy to understand.
SPC quantifies
variability and allows
you to determine if a
process changed.
19
DISCUSSION ON VARIABILITY
First order
lower
spec.
size
Upper
spec.
20
Second order
lower
spec.
size
Upper
spec.
21
After 6 orders
lower
spec.
size
Upper
spec.
22
After 12 orders
lower
spec.
size
Upper
spec.
23
lower
spec.
size
Upper
spec.
lower
spec.
size
Upper
spec.
What is HITOGRAM?
Why we need it to understand?
What is this BELL shape and normal distribution?
Plot HISTOGRAM for following DATA
4.2
5.2
5.4
2.1
9
9.6
13
14
15
9.6
Data
12.4
14.8
18
17
19
15.5
2
5
7
10.1
6
7.8
11
11.8
9.4
10.8
10
11
10.1
8.8
26
LEANRING 3
CHARACTERISTICS OF A NORMAL
DISTRIBUTION
LOCATION
SPREAD:
The dispersion it is
usually expressed as
SIGMA
LOCATION:
The central tendency
it is usually
expressed as the
AVERAGE
SPREAD
27
Distribution Patterns
Saw tooth
Sharp Drop
Negatively Skewed
Twin Peak
Positively Skewed
Bell Shape
28
Average different
Spread same
29
Average same
Spread different
A
B
30
Average different
Spread different
31
LEANRING 4
sigma
32
+/-3 sigma
+/- 2 sigma
+/- 1 sigma
2%
14%
32%
32%
14%
2%
33
+/-3 sigma
99.73%
+/-2 sigma
96.45%
+/-1 sigma
64.25%
2%
14%
32%
32%
14%
2%
34
LEANRING 5
99.73%
+/-3 sigma
95.45%
+/- 2 sigma
68.26%
+/- 1 sigma
2.14%
13.6%
34.13%
34.13%
13.6%
2.14%
35
2
14
32
gallons
64%
+/-1 sigma
+/-2 sigma 96%
+/-3 sigma 99.7%
36
LEANRING 6
Properties of a normal model curve :It is symmetrical , unimodel and bell shaped.
It is uniquely determined by the two parameters ,
namely mean and standard deviation.
In the family of normal curves smaller the standard
deviation , higher will be the peak.
If the original observations follow a normal model with
mean mu and std dev sigma then the averages of random
sample of size n drawn from this distribution will also
follow a normal distribution.
The mean of the new model is same as the original
model I.e mu but the standard deviation gets reduced to
37
(sigma)/root "n"
Sources of Variation
Common Cause
Special Cause
38
LEANRING 7
If only common cause of variation are present, the
output of a process forms a distribution that is
stable over time and is
PREDICTABLE.
PREDICTION
IM
E
39
SO WHAT?
That's great, we can make prediction based
on sigma, So what?
Once we know the sigma of a process then;
Process has not changed if it is inside +/- 3
sigma.
If outside +/- 3 sigma, process has changed
40
LEANRING 8
SINCE WE CAN NOT SAMPLE 100 UNITS TO
DETERMINE IF OUR MANUFACTURING PROCESS
HAS CHANGED WE NEED A QUICK EFFECTIVE
WAY TO MEASURE THE TWO ATTRIBUTE OF
A PROCESS; THE CENTER AND THE SPREAD
CENTER = AVERAGE
SPREAD = RANGE
= (MAXIMUM - MINIMUM)
LEANRING 9
The Median :
The median is a single value from the data set that measures
the central item in the set of numbers.Half of the item lie
above this point and the other half lie below it.
We can find median even when our data are qualitative
descriptions.
For example we have five runs of the printing press the results
of which must be rated according to the sharpness of the
image.
Extremely sharp, very sharp, sharp slightly blurred, and very
blurred.
Mode :The mode is a value that is repeated most often in the data set.
Infect it is the value with highest frequency.
44
average = (23+23+24+26+27)/5
= 24.6
Range = 27 - 23
=4
45
range
average
2
3
4
5
avg
Min.
Max
Range
23 22 23 22
23 25 23 24
24 25 24 24
26 26 27 25
27 27 27 26
24.6 25.0 24.8 24.2
LEANRING 9
If you thought of the control charts as a stretched out
slinky, it would look like a histogram if you collapsed
it. Since the control chart is nothing more than a
histogram expressed over time, what we said about
SIGMA applies to the control chart as well.
x-bar Chart
x
x xx
x xxx xxx
x xxx xxx x
x xxx xxx
x xx
x xx
xx
x xx
47
64%
+/-1 sigma
+/-2 sigma 96%
+/-3 sigma 99.7%
48
xx
xxx
xxxxxxxx
xxxxxxx
xxxxxxx
xxx
xxx
xx
xxx
+/- 3 sigma
49
50
LEANRING 10
Control Limits for
Average and Range Chart
X =
X+X+X+X
1 2 3
n
n
R =
R+R+R+R
1 2 3
n
n
UCL
= X + A2R
UCL
= D4R
CL
=X
CL
=R
LCL
= X - A2R
LCL
= D3R
51
TYPES OF VARIABILITY
Common cause= normal, Inherent
Arrive work between 7:55 to 8:01due to number traffics lights
that you stopped at on your way to work.
Special cause = assignable
Arrived to work today at 8:45 because;
a) flat tire on the way to work
b) Accident on the interstate
c) I met up with an old drinking buddy and
I stayed out later than I should have.
53
Late to work
Early
to
work
7:42
7:48
7:54
8:00
8:06
8:12
55
Early
to
work
7:42
Judge Ito
7:48
7:54
Arrival time at work
8:00
8:06
8:12
56
LEANRING 11
Cp
(n-1)
_
_ 2
_
2
2
(x-x1 ) + (x-x2) + (x-x )
(R abr) =
(n - 1)
R
d2
58
+/- 3 sigma
Range chart
xxx
xx
xxx
xxx
xxxxxxxx
xxxxxxx
xxxxxxx
xxx
xx
+/- 3 sigma
59
LOCATION SHIFTS
Process spread
remains same
while center
increases
60
Range chart
+/- 3 sigma
61
SPREAD CHANGE
Process spread
increase while
center remain
same
62
Spread increased
Center remain same
X-bar chart
+/- 3 sigma
Range chart
+/- 3 sigma
63
Spread increased
Center remain same
X-bar chart
+/- 3 sigma
Range chart
+/- 3 sigma
64
LEANRING 12
Note that when the process variation increased
the Range chart points shifted to a higher level.
However, the process center (X-bar) seems to
swing wildly going out of both Upper and Lower
control limit while the average is still the same.
Because of the tendency of the X-bar chart to
swing with increase variability, the Range chart
must be reviewed first to determine if the process
variability increased prior to looking at the X-bar
chart to determine if the process shifted.
65
+/- 3 sigma
TREND
target
+/- 3 sigma
SHIFT
target
67
PROCESS CAPABILITY
So you now know how to detect change in a
process. You even know how to detect different
type of change to the process distribution. Up to
now we have not talked about the QUALITY of the
products being produced while the process is
controlled using SPC methods.
If we control the process the process will produce
parts with variation as the equipment is CAPABLE
of producing. We call this PROCESS CAPABILITY.
69
TARGET
Cpk
Cp
Lower
spec.
7:42
Upper
spec.
7:48
7:54
8:00
8:06
8:12
70
Cpk =
or
Lower
spec.
7:42
Cpk
TARGET
Cpk
7:48
7:54
Upper
spec.
8:00
8:06
8:12
71
LEANRING
IT IS IMPORTANT TO KNOW
WHAT YOUR MACHINE IS
CAPABLE OF PRODUCING.
OTHERWISE YOU MAY BE
CHASING YOUR TAIL TRYING
TO GET THE MACHINE TO
DO WHAT IT IS NOT
CAPABLE OF DOING.
72
x UPPER SPEC
x
x
xxx
x xx x
xx x x xx x xx
x
x
xx xxx x x
xx
x
x
x
x
xxxxxxx
x
x
x
x
x
x
x x x xx xxxxxxx
x
x x x xx xxxxxxx
xxxxxxx
x x xxx
x
xxx
xxx
x
x
xx
x
xx xxxxxxx xx x
x xxx
xx
x
x
LOWER SPEC
x
X-bar chart
UpperControl Limit
x
x
= x
x
x
xx
xxx
xxxxxxx
xxxxxxxx
xxxxxxx
xxx
xxx
xx
xxx
LowerControl Limit
LEANRING
machine capability
xx xxx x
x
x
x
x xxxxxxx
x xxx
xx
x
x Lower spec
x
74
LEANRING
If by the luck of the draw you get a reading below the
lower specification even though the process has not
changed, and adjusted the machine up.
The distribution will shift up.
machine capability
x
x Upper spec
xx
x
xxxxx x
x
xxx
x
xxxxx
xx
x
x
x
x x
x x x xx xxxxxxx
x
x
x
x
xx xxxxxxxx
x
x
x
x
x
xxxxxxx
x x x xx xxxxxxx
x x xxx
x
xxx
xxx
x
x
xx
x
x
x
xxxxxxx x
x
x
x xxx
x
xx Lower spec
x
x
Sample
x
x
xx = x
x
s
u
j
d
A
e
n
i
h
ac
tm
up
75
LEANRING
After the distribution shifted up, there is now a
much greater chance of getting a value outside
upper specification. So the machine is adjusted
down, slightly more than it was adjusted up.
Chance of out of
spec was = 10%
machine capability
Upper spec
x
x
x
x
x
x
xx xx x
x
xxx
x
xxxxx
xx
x
x
x
x x
x x x xx xxxxxxx
x
x
x
x
xx xxxxxxxx
x
x
x
x xxx
xx
x xxxxxxx
xxxxxxx
x x xxx
x
xxx
xxx
x
x
xx
x
x xxxxxxxx x
x
x
xx
xxx
xx
Lower spec
x
x
x
x
x
xxx
x
xx xx x
x
xxx
xxxxxxx
xx
x
x
x x
x x x xx xxxxxxx
x
x
x
x
xx xxxxxxxx
x
x
x
x xxx
xx
x xxxxxxx
xxxxxxx
x x xxx
x
xxx
xxx
x
x
xx
x
x xxxxxxx x
x
x
xx
xxx
xx
x
x
x
Chance of out of
spec is now = 40%
Ad
j
us
t
ac
hi
ne
do
wn
76
LEANRING 13
The adjustments continues until, the actual products
produced varies much more than the capability of the
machine.
Actual range of product produced
machine capability
x
x
xx
xx
x
x
xxxx
x
x
xx x xxx
xx
x
x
x xxx x
xx Upper spec x
x xxx
x
xxxxxxxx
xx
x x x xx
x
xxxxxxxx
x xx x
x
x
x
x
xxxxxxx
xx x x xx x xx
x
x xxx
x
x
xxx
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x xxx x x
x xxx
x x xxx
x
xxx
x
x
x
x
x
xxxxxxx
x
x
x
x xx xxxxxxxx x x xxxxxxxxx x
x
x
xx
x
x
x
x
xx
x xxxxxxx
x xx x
xx
xxx
xx xxxxxxx x x
xx x x xx x xx
xxx
x x xxx
x
xxx
x
x
x
x
x
x xx xxx x x
x
xx
x xx xxxxxxx
x x xxxxxxxxx x
x
x
x
x xxx x
x
x
xx xxxxxxxx
x
xx
x
x x xxx
x
x xxxxxxx
x xxx
xx xxxxxxx
xx Lower spec x
x x xxx
x
xxx
xxx
x
x
x
xx
x
x
xxx xx x
xxx
x
x
x
x
x xxx
xx
x
x
x
x
x
x
xxx
x xx x
xx x x xx x xx
x
x xx xxx x x
xx
x xx xxxxxxx
x
x
x
x
xx xxxxxxxx
x xx
x
x
x
xxxxxxx
x x x xx xxxxxxx
x x xxx
x
xxx
xxx
x
x
xx
x
x x xxx xx x
xx
x
x xxxx
x
xx
x
x
77
LEANRING 14
If you are controlling your process using SPC Method,
even if your process is not capable, no adjustment
would take place. Therefore, the product you produced
is what the machine is capable of and not more.
machine capability
x
x
xxx Upper spec
x
xx xx x
x
xxx
xxxxxxx
xx
x
x
x x
x x x xx xxxxxxx
x
x
x
x
xx xxxxxxxx
x
x
x
x
x
xxxxxxx
x x x xx xxxxxxx
x x xxx
x
xxx
xxx
x
x
xx
x
x
xxxxx x
xxx
x
x
x xxx
x
xx Lower spec
x
x
x
UpperControl Limit
x
x
= x
x
x
xx
xxx
xxxxxxx
xxxxxxxx
xxxxxxx
xxx
xxx
xx
xxx
LowerControl Limit
78
Defects
p-Chart c - Chart
np-Chart u - Chart
79
Measurement
System
Analysis
(MSA)
80