TECHNICAL ELECTIVE 2

(CETE 543)
EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING
COURSE OUTLINE
1. Introduction to Earthquake Resistant Design: Earthquakes and
Urbanization. History of Major International & Philippine Earthquakes.
The Ring of Fire.
2. Elements of Seismology: Earthquake Faults; Theory of plate Tectonics.
3. Earthquake Records and Measuring Instruments: Seismographs;
Accelerographs; Seismoscopes; Earthquake Networks. Design of an
Improvised Seismograph.
4. Propagation of Seismic Disturbances: Earthquake Waves.
5. Earthquake Descriptors: Earthquake Magnitude; Seismic Moment;
Seismic Energy; Th eCentroid Moment Tensor Propject; Magnitude and
Faulting; Foreshocks, Aftershocks, and Swarms; Seismic Intensity
(Rossi-Forrel Scale, Modified Mercalli Scale, USSR GEOFAN Scale,
MSK-64 Scale).
6. Major Earthquake Zones in the Philippines: PHIVOLCS Information
2000; PHIVOLCS Earthquake Portfolio 2004.
7. Earthquake Load Analysis: Introduction to NSCP 2001 Specification
Design Basis.
8. Earthquake Load Analysis: Criteria Selection. System Limitations, Site
Categorization Procedure.
9. Minimum Design Lateral Forces and Related Effects: Earthquake Loads and
Modelling Requirements, P Effects.
10. Lateral Force Procedures for Building Structures: Selection of Lateral Force
Procedure, Seismic Design and Analysis, The Static Lateral Force Procedure.
Vertical Distribution of Forces.
11. Lateral Force Procedures for Building Structures: The Simplified Static Lateral
Force Procedure, P Effects, Storey Drift Limitations. Vertical Component of
Force.
12. Lateral Force Procedures for Non Structural Elements: Design of Lateral Force,
Specification of Lateral Forces, Relative Motion Equipment Attachment,
Alternative Designs.
13. Lateral Force Procedures for Non Building Structures: Definition and Criteria,
Weight, Period, Drift, Interaction Effects, Non Building Structures, Rigid
Structures, Tanks with Supporting Bottom, Other Non Building Structures.
14. Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads: Forces, Distribution of Lateral
ForcesPortal Method, Distribution of Lateral ForcesQ Factor Method.
15. Introduction to the Response Spectrum Analysis and Design: Time Histories,
Earthquake Response Spectrum, Earthquake Design Spectrum.
 Propagation of Seismic
Disturbances: Earthquake
Waves
What is earthquake wave?
Earthquake waves
Seismic waves that are
created when energy
builds up in rocks and
they fracture.
Earthquake vibrations
originate from the point of
initiation of rupture and
propagates in all
directions. These
vibrations travel through
the rocks in the form of
elastic waves.
Types of seismic waves:

Body Waves
waves that move within the Earths
interior or within a body of rock
Surface Waves
waves that move close to or on the
outside surface of the Earth.
Elastic waves Body
waves

Two types based

on mode of
travel
Primary Wave

Secondary Wave
Elastic waves Body
waves
Primary Waves :
Longitudinal Waves , Push-pull Waves
They are faster than transversal waves and thus
arrive first.
The particles oscillate in the direction of
spreading of the wave.
Compressional waves
P-waves

Secondary Waves :
Transversal Waves
The particles oscillate in the direction
perpendicular to the spreading direction.
Shear waves they do not propagate through
solids (e.g. through the outer core).
S-waves
Elastic waves Body
waves

P-waves:

S-waves:
Body Waves P and S waves
Particle Motion
Surface Wave

Two types :
Rayleigh Wave

Love Wave
Surface Wave

Rayleigh Waves :
Tension-compression waves
Their amplitude diminishes with distance below
the surface of the ground

Love Waves :
Shear Waves
They diminishes rapidly with distance below
surface.
Surface Wave

Rayleigh
waves:

Love
waves:
Why are seismic waves
important?

Some things seismic waves are

good for include:
Mapping the Interior of the Earth
Detection of Contaminated
Aquifers
Finding Prospective Oil and
Natural Gas Locations
Types of Interaction between
Waves

Refraction
Reflection
Types of Interaction between
Waves

Refraction:
The deflection, or bending, of the ray path of a
seismic wave caused by its passage from one
material to another having different elastic
properties.
Bending of atsunami wave front owing to
variations in the water depth along a coastline.

Reflection :
The energy or wave from an earthquake that has
been returned (reflected) from an boundary
between two different materials within the earth,
just as a mirror reflects light.
Types of Interaction between
Waves

Reflection :

Refraction :
Seismic Wave Speed

Seismic Wave Where:

Speed = shear modulus
Equation = density
K = modulus of compressibility (bulk modulus)

The bulk modulus (K) of a substance essentially

measures the substance's resistance to uniform
compression.

It is defined as the pressure increase needed to

effect a given relative decrease in volume.

Shear modulus, , sometimes referred to as the

modulus of rigidity, is the ratio of shear stress to
the shear strain
Seismic Wave Speed
Seismic Wave Speed
Seismic Phases

Earthquake Waves
Seismic phases are described with one or more
letters, each of which describes a part of the wave
path.
Upper case letters denote travel through a part of
the earth (e.g. P or S), and lower case letters denote
reflections from boundaries
Seismic Phases
P A primary (compressional)
wave that follows a simple
path from event source to the
station.

PcP A P wave that goes

downward through the
mantle (the first P), is
reflected from the top of the
outer core (c) and goes
upward through the mantle to
the station (second P).

Pdif A P wave that has been

bent (diffracted) around the
outer core boundary and
arrives at a station in the ray
shadow of the outer core.
Seismic Phases
S A secondary (shear) wave
that follows a path similar to
the P wave (not shown).

SS A shear wave that has

traveled through the mantle
(S), undergone one
reflection from the underside
of Earths surface and
traveled again through the
mantle (second S). Unlike
with most other reflected
waves, there is no separate
letter to denote the reflection
at the surface; it is implicit.

PP A compressional wave
that follows paths similar to
those of SS (not shown).
Earthquake Descriptors
Earthquake Magnitude
An earthquake is also
defined as the sudden slip
of one part of the Earth's
crust, relative to another,
along a fault surface.
A gradual build-up of
mechanical stress in the
crust, primarily the result of
tectonic forces, provides the
source of energy for
earthquakes; sudden motion
along a fault releases it in
the form of seismic waves.
It's unclear when the
connection between faults
and earthquakes was first
made, but by the late 19th
Century most scientists
accepted this association as
fact, even if the mechanisms
Earthquake Magnitude

Fault research received

a tremendous boost in
the aftermath of the
great San Francisco
earthquake of 1906.
This was one of the first
earthquakes for which
both seismographic and
fault-rupture studies
were conducted.
The fault rupture
occurred in through a
very well-surveyed,
developed area.
Earthquake Magnitude

Because of this,
researchers could not
only map the offset
across the fault trace,
but also the amount of
displacement between
points far removed
from the fault.
This work led to the
formulation of the
elastic rebound
theory of fault
rupture by Princeton
geologist Harry F.
Reid.
Earthquake Magnitude

How big is an
earthquake?
Depends on how big a
patch of the fault breaks. If
the patch that breaks is a
few square miles, you may
have a magnitude five
earthquake.
If it's up to a couple
hundred square miles, you
have a magnitude seven.
If it's a couple of thousand
square miles, you get a M
7.8, 1906 San Francisco
quake."
Seismic Moment

The seismic moment is the product of the area of fault

surface that ruptures, the average displacement along that
surface, and a constant -- a measure of the elastic property
of rock (i.e. how easily it can be stretched) called the
modulus of rigidity.

Moment magnitude (MW) is based upon the seismic moment,

and represents a kind of bridge between the seismological
and geological views of an earthquake.
Radiated Seismic Energy

Seismic energy is a
physical concept related to
broadband information on
the source radiation; this is
different from seismic
moment.

In theory, its computation

simply requires an
integration of radiated
energy flux in velocity-
squared seismograms.
Seismic Energy

In practice, energy has historically almost always

been estimated with empirical formulas. The
empirical approach dominated for two major
reasons:

1. Until the 1980s most seismic data were analog,

a format which was not amenable to spectral
processing on a routine basis.

2. An accurate estimate of radiated energy

requires the analysis of spectral information
both above and below the corner frequency of
an earthquake, about which energy density is
most strongly peaked.
How is radiated seismic energy
measured?
To determine the total seismic energy radiated
from an earthquake one would have to integrate
the energy radiated at all frequencies over the
entire focal sphere. The spectrum of the average
radiation over the focal sphere can be
approximated by a constant level at low
frequencies (which is proportional to the
moment, Mo) and a uniform decrease with
increasing frequency above some corner
frequency (Fc), so the seismic energy is a
function of both Moand Fc. For a given moment,
the radiated energy will increase as
Fcincreases.
Radiated Seismic Energy

If one event were a "slow" earthquake with "more or

less creep-like deformation" while the other had a
more typical rupture velocity near the shear wave
velocity, much more energy would be radiated from
the latter earthquake due to its rich high frequency
radiation corresponding larger Fcthan from the
"slow" event.

E= erg (1 erg = 1 dyn cm)

Radiated Seismic Energy

Log E = 1.5 MW + 11.8

(Gutenberg-Richter magnitude-energy relation)

Then:

Log Mo Log (2 x 104) = 1.5 MW + 11.8

Centroid Moment Tensor (CMT)
Centroid Moment Tensor (CMT) is a reliable
method for calculating moment tensors.
Seismic Moment is a Moment Tensor is a
measure of the size of an mathematical
earthquake based on the representation of the
area of fault rupture, the movement on a fault
average amount ofslip, during an earthquake,
and the force that was comprising of nine
required to overcome the generalized couples, or
friction sticking the rocks nine sets of two vectors.
together that were offset The tensor depends of the
by faulting. Seismic source strength and fault
moment can also be orientation.
calculated from the
amplitudespectraof
oreshock, Aftershock and Swarms

The patterns of earthquake occurrence

in time domain can be generally
divided into three groups:

1. Foreshock-main shock-aftershock,

2. Main shock-aftershock, and

3. Earthquake swarm.
Mainshock

The mainshock is the

largest earthquake in a
sequence, sometimes
preceded by one or more
foreshocks, and almost
always followed by
manyaftershocks.

The Landers fault (red lines at left) and the Hector Mine
fault and its aftershocks (red lines and circles at right).
The Hector Mine earthquake was a magnitude 7.1, and
it produced thousands of aftershocks.
Foreshock

Foreshocks are
relatively smaller
earthquakes that
precede the largest
earthquake in a series,
which is termed the
mainshock. Not all
Small foreshocks on a seismic record.
mainshocks have
foreshocks.
Aftershock

Aftershocks are
earthquakes that follow the
largest shock of an
earthquake sequence. They
are smaller than the
mainshock and within 1-2
rupture lengths distance from
the mainshock.

Plot of number of aftershocks

in region of mainshock
Swarms

Earthquake Swarms
are series of minor
earthquakes occurring in
the same area and time,
none of which may be
identified as the main
shock.

Record Swarm Of California

Earthquakes October 2015
Seismic Intensity

RossiForel scale
It was one of the firstseismic
scalesto reflect earthquake
intensities. Developed byMichele
Stefano Conte de Rossi Michele Stefano Conte de Rossi
ofItalyandFrano-Alphonse
Forel ofSwitzerlandin the late
19th century
Used for about two decades
until the introduction of
theMercalli Intensity Scalein
1902.
Frano-Alphonse Forel
RossiForel Scale
Modified Mercalli Scale
MedvedevSponheuerKarnik scale

Also known as theMSKorMSK-64

A macroseismic intensity scale used to
evaluate the severity of ground shaking on the
basis of observed effects in an area of
theearthquakeoccurrence
First proposed by Sergei Medvedev (USSR),
Wilhelm Sponheuer (East Germany), and Vit
Krnik (Czechoslovakia) in 1964
Based on the experiences being available in
the early 1960s from the application of
theModified Mercalli Intensity Scaleand the 1953
version of theMedvedev Scale, known also as the
GEOFIAN scale
MedvedevSponheuerKarnik scale
GEOFIAN Scale

Geophysical Institute of the Academy of

Sciences
By Medvedev, 1953
Similar to Modified Mercalli Scale
Incorporates some quantitative evaluation of
ground motion in addition to sensation response
Major Earthquake Zones
in the Philippines
he fault lines in the Philippines
Fault lines
1. Central Philippine Fault
2. Marikina Valley Fault
3. Western Philippine Fault
4. Eastern Philippine Fault
5. Southern of Mindanao Fault
Affected areas
Entire Ilocos Norte, Aurora,
Quezon, Masbate, Eastern Leyte,
Southern Leyte, Agusan Del
Norte, Agusan Del Sur, Davao
Del Norte.
Montalban, San Mateo, Marikina,
Pasig, Taguig, Muntinlupa, San
Pedro,Binan, Carmona, Santa
Rosa, Calamba, Tagaytay,
Oriental Mindoro.
Luzon Sea, Mindoro Strait,
Panay Gulf, Sulu Sea.
Philippine Sea
Moro Gulf, Celebes Sea
Marikina Valley Fault System

also known as theValley Fault System(VFS)

a dominantly dextralstrike-slip
most geologically active fault line in the
Philippines
It extends fromDingalan, Aurorain the
north and runs through the
provincesofNueva Ecija,BulacanandRizal,
and theMetro Manila citiesofQuezon,
Marikina,Pasig,Makati,Paranaque,
TaguigandMuntinlupa, and the provinces
ofCaviteandLagunathat ends inCanlubang
contains two major segments
West Valley Fault (WVF)
Valley Fault (EVF)
Marikina Valley Fault System
East Valley Fault (EVF)

Moves in an
obliquedextral motion
within 10 kilometers
Traverses the
municipalities of Rodriguez
and San Mateo in Rizal
Province
This fault can generate
an earthquake with a
magnitude of 6.2 that may
result to a very destructive
ground shaking
West Valley Fault (WVF)

Approximately 100-km long

and transects portions of
Quezon City, Marikina, Pasig,
Makati, Taguig and
Muntinlupa and the province
of Bulacan, Rizal, Laguna and
Cavite)
Moves in a
dominantlydextralstrike-slip
motion
Capable of producing large
scaleearthquakeson its
active phases with
amagnitudeof 7.2 or higher
Philippine Fault Zone (PFZ)
1,200-km-long
A major tectonic feature
that transects the whole
Philippine archipelago from
northwestern Luzon to
southeastern Mindanao
Arc-parallel, left-lateral
strike slip fault
Divided into several
segments and has been the
source of large-magnitude
earthquakes in recent years,
such as the 1973 Ragay Gulf
earthquake (M 7.0), 1990
Luzon earthquake (Mw 7.7)
(Figure 1), and 2003
Philippine Fault Zone (PFZ)

It comprises the Guinyangan Fault,

Masbate Fault, and Central Luzon Fault.
This is found to be the site and sources of
fault creep activity, slow slip event and
great earthquakes in the archipelago.
Philippine Fault Zone (PFZ)

Guinyangan Fault
the northern locked portion with recurrence
interval of as short as 65 years
Masbate fault
Central part with large and medium
earthquakes accompanied by unusually large
ground rupture
North and the South Central Leyte Fault
characterized by a seismic creep and medium-
sized events, usually with clusters of foreshocks
Masbate fault and Central Leyte Fault
correlates well with the behavior of known slow
events and creep activity
Philippine Fault Zone (PFZ)

Fig. 1. Map showing the extent of the PFZ (bold

solid line) transecting the Philippine archipelago
from northeastern Luzon to southeastern Mindanao.
Also shown are the major tectonic features of the
region. Solid hachured lines are trenches while
dashed lines are other active faults inadjoining
islands. The rectangular area defines the study
area.
Philippine Fault Zone (PFZ)

Fig. 2. Map showing the historical earthquakes along

the central portion of the PFZ (modified from
PHIVOLCS, 2000). Star indicates the epicenter of the
historical events. Offshore location of the PFZ and
trenches are indicated by dashed line and hachured
lines, respectively.
Philippine Fault Zone (PFZ)

Fig. 3. (a) The central portion of the PFZ corresponding to the earthquake activity on the right (b) on temporal
plot. The fault portion with reported creep (Catane et al., 2000; Duquesnoy et al., 1994) and the location of
the 2003 eventon Masbate (Besana et al., 2003) are indicated by light grey and dark grey, respectively.
Vertical lines indicate the possible extent of ground rupture using the magnitude estimate from the Wells and
Coppersmith (1994) empirical relations. Solid gray circle indicates the moderate-sized (>M56) events along
the MF, mostly with significant ground rupture.
Earthquake Load Analysis
Purpose

The purpose of the earthquake

provisions herein is primarily to
safeguard against major structural
failures and loss of life, not to limit
damage or maintain function.
Minimum Seismic Design

Structures and portions thereof

shall, as a minimum be designed
and constructed to resist the effects
of seismic ground motions as
provided in this section.
Seismic and Wind Design

When the code-prescribed wind

produces greater effects, the wind
design shall govern, but detailing
requirements and limitations
prescribed in this section and
referenced sections shall be
followed.
Basis for Design
The procedures and limitations for the
design of structures shall be determined
considering seismic zoning, site
characteristics, occupancy, configuration,
structural system and height in
accordance with this section. Structures
shall be designed with adequate strength
to withstand the lateral displacements
induces by the Design Basis Ground
Motion, considering the inelastic response
of the structure and the inherent
redundancy , overstrength and ductility of
Basis for Design

The minimum design strength shall

be based on the Design Seismic
Forces determined in accordance
with the static lateral force
procedure of Section 208.5, except
as modified by Section 208.6.5.4.
Basis for Design

Where strength design is used, the

load combinations of Section 203.3
shall apply. Where Allowable Stress
Design is used, the load
combinations of Section 203.4
shall apply.
Symbols and
Notations
Section 203.3 Load Combinations using
Strength Design or Load and Resistance
Factor Design
Section 203.4 Load Combinations Using
Allowable Stress Design
Occupancy Category

For purposes of earthquake-resistant

design, each structure shall be
placed in one of the occupancy
categories listed in Table 103-1.
Table 208-1 assigns importance
factors, I and Ip and structural
observation requirements for each
category.
Occupancy Category
Occupancy Category
Seismic Important Factors
Site Geology and Soil Characteristics

Each site shall be assigned a soil

profile type based on properly
substantiated geotechnical data
using site categorization
procedure set forth in Section
208.1 and Table 208-2
Site Geology and Soil Characteristics

Exception :
When the soil properties are not
known in sufficient detail to
determine the soil profile type. Type
SD shall be used. Soil profile type SE
or SF need not be assumed unless
the building official determines that
Type SE and SF may be present at
the site or in the event that Type SE
or SF is established by geotechnical
Soil Profile Type
Soil Profile Types SA, SB, SC and SD are defined in Table 208-
2 and Soil Profile Type SF is defined as soils requiring site-
specific evaluation as follow:
1. Soils vulnerable to potential failure or collapse under
seismic loading, such as liquefiable soil, quick and
highly sensitive clays, and collapsible weakly
cemented soils.
2. Peats and/or highly organic clays, where the thickness
of peat or highly organic clay exceed 3.0m
3. Very high plasticity index, PI>75, where the depth of
clays exceed 7.5.
4. Very thick soft/medium stiff clays, where the depth of
clay exceeds 35m.
The criteria set forth in the definition for Soil Profile Type
SF requiring site-specific evaluation shall be considered. If
the site corresponds to these criteria, the site shall be
Soil Profile Type
Seismic Zone

The Philippine archipelago is

divided into two seismic zones
only. Zone 2 covers the
provinces of Palawan, Sulu and
Tawi-Tawi white the rest of the
country is under Zone 4 as
shown in Figure 208-1. Each
structure shall be assigned a
seismic zone factor Z, in
accordance with Table 208-3.
Seismic Map in the Philippines
Seismic Zone Factor
Seismic Zone 4 Near-Source
Factor

In Seismic Zone 4,each site shall

be assigned near-source factors
in accordance with Tables 208-4
and 208-5 based on the Seismic
Source Type as set forth in
Section 208.4.4.4
Seismic Zone 4 Near-Source
Factor
The value of Na used to determine Ca need not
exceed 1.1 for structures complying with all the
following conditions :
1. The soil profile is SA, SB, SC or SD
2. = 1.0 (Redundancy/Reliability Factor given by
Equation 208-3)
3. Except in single-story structures, residential
building accommodating 10 or fewer persons,
private garages, carports, sheds and agricultural
buildings, moment-resisting frames.
4. The exceptions to Section 515.6.5 shall not apply,
except for columns in one-story buildings or
columns at the top story of multistory buildings.
None of the following structural irregularities is
present : Type 1, 4 or 5 of Table 208-9, and Type 1 or 4
of Table 208-10.
Near-Source Factor, Na
Seismic Response Coefficients

Each structure shall be assigned a

seismic coefficient Ca in
accordance with Table 208-7 and a
Seismic coefficient Cv in
accordance with Table 208.8
Seismic Response Coefficients
Seismic Source Types

Table 208-6 defines the types of

seismic sources. The location and
type of seismic sources to be used for
design shall be established based on
approved geological data; see Figure
208-2A. Type A source shall be
determined form Figures 208-2B, C, D,
E or the most recent mapping of
active faults by the Philippine Institute
of Volcanology and Seismology
(PHIVOLCS).
Seismic Source Types
Vertical Structure Irregularities
Horizontal Structure Irregularitie
Structural Systems

Structural systems shall be

classified as one of the types
listed in Table 208-11 and
defined in this section.
Earthquake Force Resisting Structural Systems of
Concrete
Earthquake Force Resisting Structural Systems of
Steel
Earthquake Force Resisting Structural Systems of
Steel
Earthquake Force Resisting Structural Systems of
Masonry
Earthquake Force Resisting Structural Systems of
Wood
Structural Systems
Bearing Wall System
A structural system without a complete vertical
load-carrying space frame. Bearing walls or bracing
systems provide support for all or most gravity
loads. Resistance to lateral load is provided by
shear walls or braces frames.
Building Frame System
A structural system with an essentially complete
space providing support for gravity loads.
Resistance to lateral load is provided by shear walls
or braced frames.
Moment Resisting Frame System
A structural system with an essentially complete
space frame providing support for gravity loads.
Moment-resisting frames provide resistance to
Structural Systems
Dual System
A structure with the following features:
1. An essentially complete space frame that
support gravity loads.
2. Resistance to lateral load is provided by
shear walls or braced frames and moment-
resisting frames (SMRF, IMRF, MMRWF or
steel OMRF). The moment-resisting frames
shall be designed to independently resist at
least 25 percent of the design base shear.
3. The two systems shall be designed to resist
the total design base shear in proportion to
their relative rigidities considering the
interaction of the dual system at all level.
Structural Systems

Cantilevered Column System

A structural system relying on cantilevered
column elements for lateral resistance.
Undefined Structural System
A structural system not listed on Table 208-11.
Height Limits

Height Limits for various structural

system in Seismic Zone 4 are give
Table 208-11.
 Selection of Lateral Force
Procedure

Any structure may be, and certain

structures defined below shall be,
designed using the dynamic lateral-
force procedures of Section 208.6
 Selection of Lateral Force
Procedure
Simplified Static
The simplified static lateral-force
procedure set forth in Section 208.5.2.3
may be used for the following structures
of Occupancy Category IV or V;
Building of any occupancy (including
single-family dwellings) not more than
three stories in height excluding
basements that use light-frame
construction.
Other buildings not more than the two
stories in height excluding basements.
 Selection of Lateral Force
Static Procedure
The static lateral force procedure of Section 208.5 may be
used for the following structures:
1. All structures, regular or irregular in occupancy
Categories IV and V in Seismic Zone 2.
2. Regular structures under 75 m height with lateral force
resistance provided by systems listed in Table 208-11,
except where Section 208.4.8.3, Item 4, applies.
3. Irregular structures not more than five stories or 20 m
in height.
4. Structures having a flexible upper portion supported on
a rigid lower portion where both of the structure
considered separately can be classified as being
regular, the average story stiffness of the upper
portion and the period of the entire structure is not
greater than 1.1 times the period of upper portion
 Selection of Lateral Force
Dynamic Procedure
The dynamic lateral-force procedure of Section 208.6 shall
be used for all other structures, including the following:
1. Structures 75 m or more in height, except as permitted
by Section 208.4.8.2 Item 1.
2. Structures having a stiffness, weight or geometric
vertical irregularity of Type 1, 2 or 3, as defined in
Table 208-9, or structures having irregular features not
described in Table 208-9 or 208-10, except as
permitted by Section 208.5.4.1.
3. Structures over five stories or 20 m in height on
Seismic Zone 4 not having the same structural system
throughout their height except as permitted by Section
208.6.2.
4. Structures, regular or irregular, located Soil Profile Type
SF, that have a period greater than 0.7 second. The
System Limitations
Discontinuity
Structures with a discontinuity in
capacity, vertical irregularity Type 5
as defined in Table 208-9, shall not be
over two stories or 9 m in height
where the weak story has a
calculated strength of less than 65
percent of the story above.
Exception :
Where the weak story is capable of
resisting a total lateral seismic force of
o times the design forces prescribed in
System Limitations
Undefined Structural Systems
For undefined structural systems not listed on
Table 208-11, the coefficient R shall be
substantiated by approved cyclic test data and
analyses. The following items shall be addressed
when establishing R :
1. Dynamic response characteristics,
2. Lateral force resistance,
3. Overstrength and strain hardening or
softening
4. Strength and stiffness degradation,
5. Energy dissipation characteristics,
6. System ductility, and
Irregular Features

All structures having irregular

features described in Table 208-9 or
208-10 shall be designed to meet the
additional requirements of those
sections referenced in tables.
Alternative Procedures

Alternative lateral-force procedures

using rational analyses based on
well-established principles of
mechanics may be used in lieu or
those prescribed in these provisions.
Alternative Procedures

Seismic Isolation
Seismic isolation, energy dissipation
and damping system may be used
in the design of structures when
approved by the building official and
when special detailing is used to
provide results equivalent to those
obtained by the use of conventional
structural systems.
Minimum Design Lateral Forces
and Related Efects

Earthquake Loads
Structures shall be designed for
ground motion producing structural
response and seismic forces in any
horizontal direction. The following
earthquake loads shall be used in the
load combinations set forth in Section
203.
Earthquake
Loads
Minimum Design Lateral Forces
and Related Efects
Modelling Requirements
The mathematical model of the physical structure
shall include all elements of the lateral-force
resisting system. The model shall also include the
stiffness and strength of elements, which are
significant to the distribution of forces, and shall
represent the spatial distribution of the ,mass and
stiffness of the structure. In addition, the model
shall comply with the following :
1. Stiffness properties of reinforced concrete and
masonry elements shall consider the effects of
cracked sections.
2. For steel moment frame systems, the
Minimum Design Lateral Forces
and Related Efects
P Effects
The resulting member forces and moments and the
story drifts induced by P effects shall be considered
in the evaluation of overall structural frame stability
and shall be evaluated using the forces producing the
displacements of s P need not be considered when
the ration of secondary moment to primary moment
does not exceed 0.10; the ratio may be evaluated for
any story as the product of the total dead and floor
live loads, as required in Section 203, above the story
times the seismic drift in that story divided by the
product of seismic shear in that story times the height
of that story. In Seismic Zone 4, P need not be
considered when the story drift ratio does not exceed
Static Force Procedure
Design Base Shear, V
Design Base Shear, V
The total design base shear in a given
direction shall be determined from the
following equation:
Design Base Shear, V
The total design base shear need not exceed
the following:

The total design base shear shall not be less

than the following :

In addition, for Seismic Zone 4, the total base

shear shall also not be less than the following:
Structure Period, T
The value of T shall be determined from one of the following
methods:
1. Method A:
For all buildings, the value T may be approximated from
the following equation:
Structure Period, T
2. Method B :
The fundamental period T may be
calculated using the structural properties
and deformational characteristics of the
resisting elements in a properly
substantiated analysis. The analysis shall
be in accordance with the requirements of
Section 208.5.1.2. The value of T from
Method B shall not exceed a value 30
percent greater than the value of T obtained
from Method A in Seismic Zone 4, and 40
percent in Seismic Zone 2.
Structure Period, T
The fundamental period T may be computed by
using the following equation:

The values of fi represent any lateral force

distributed approximately in accordance with
the principles of Equations (208-13), (208-14),
(208-15) or any other rational distribution. The
elastic deflections, i, shall be calculated using
Simplified Design Base Shear
Structures conforming to the requirements of Section
208.4.8.1 may be designed using this procedure
Base Shear
The total base shear in a given direction shall be determined
from the following equation

where the value of Ca shall be based on Table 208-7 for the

soil profile type. When the soil properties are not known in
sufficient detail to determine the soil profile type, Type SD
shall be used in Seismic Zone 4, and Type SE shall be used in
Seismic Zone 2. In seismic Zone 4, the Near-Source Factor
Na, need not be greater than 1.2 if none of the following
structural irregularities are present :
1. Type 1,4 or 5 of Table 208-9, or
Vertical Distribution

The force at each level shall be calculated

using the following equation:

where the value of Ca shall be determined as

in Section 208.5.2.3.1
Simplified Design Base Shear
Applicability
Sections 208.5.1.2, 208.5.1.3, 208.5.2.1,
208.5.2.2, 208.5.5, 208.5.9, 208.5.10 and
208.6 shall apply when using the simplified
procedure.

Exceptions :
For buildings with relatively flexible structural
systems, the building official may require
consideration of P effects and drift in
accordance with Sections 208.5.1.3, 208.5.9
and 208.5.10 shall be determined using design
seismic forces from Section 208.5.2.3.1.
Simplified Design Base Shear
Determination of Seismic Factors
Determination of o
For specific elements o=f the structure, as
specifically identified in this code, the
minimum design strength shall be the product
of the seismic force overstrength factor o
and the design seismic forces set forth in
Section 208.5. For both Allowable Stress
Design and Strength Design, the Seismic
Force Overstrength Factor, o, shall be taken
from Table 208-11.

Determination of R
The value of R shall be taken from Table 208-
11.
Combinations of Structural System

Where combinations of structural

systems are incorporated into
same structure, the
requirements of this section shall
be satisfied.
Vertical Combinations
The value of R used in the design of any
story shall be less than or equal to the
value of R used in the given direction for
the story above.

Exception :
This requirement need not be applied to
a story where the dead weight above that
story is less than 10 percent of the total
dead weight of the structure.
Vertical Combinations
Structures may be designed using the lowest R of the
lateral force-resisting systems used, or
1. The following two-stage static analysis
procedures may be used for structures confirming
to Section 208.4.8.2, Item 4.
1.1 The flexible upper portion shall be designed as
a separate structure, supported laterally by
the rigid lower portion, using the appropriate
values of R and .
1.2. The rigid lower portion shall be designed as a
separate structure using the appropriate values
of R and . The reactions from the upper portion
shall be those determined form the analysis of the
upper portion amplified by the ratio of the
(R/) of the upper portion over (R/ ) of the lower
portion.
ombinations along Diferent Axes
In seismic Zone 4 where a structure has a
bearing wall system in only one direction, the
value of R used for design in the orthogonal
direction shall not be greater than that used
for the bearing wall system.

Any combination of bearing wall systems,

building frame systems, dual systems or
moment--resisting frame systems may be used
to resist seismic forces in structures less than
50 m in height. Only combinations of dual
systems and special moment-resisting frames
shall be used to resist seismic forces in
structures exceeding 50 m in height in Seismic
Zone 4.
ombinations along the Same Axis

Where a combination of different

structural systems is utilized to resist
lateral forces in the same direction, the
value of R used for design in that direction
shall not be greater than the least value
for any of the systems utilized in that
same direction.
Vertical Distribution of Force
The total force shall be distributed over the
height of the structure in conformance with
Equations (208-13), (208-14) and (208-15) in
the absence of a more rigorous procedure.

The concentrated force Ft at the top, which is

in addition to Fn, shall be determine form the
equation:
Vertical Distribution of Force
The value of T used for the purpose of
calculating Ft shall be the period that
corresponds with the design base shear as
computed using Equation (208-4). Ft need
not exceed 0.25V and may be considered as
zero where T is 0.7 second or less. The
remaining portion of the base shear shall be
distributed over the height of the structure,
including Level n, according to the following
equation:
Vertical Distribution of Force

At each level designated as x, the force

Fx shall be applied over the area of the
building in accordance with the mass
distribution at the level. Structural
displacements and design seismic forces
shall be calculated as the effect of forces
Fx and Ft at the appropriate levels above
the base.
Design Base Shear

A. Standard Method :

W = total weight of building

T = period of vibration
R = numerical coefficient representative
of the inherent overstrength and global
ductility capacity of lateral-force-
resisting system
Symbols and Notations :
Ct = numerical coefficient
Ct = 0.0853 for steel moment-resisting frame
Ct = 0.0731 for reinforced concrete moment-resisting frame
Ca = seismic coefficient
Cv = seismic coefficient
Nv = near source factor
Z = seismic zone factor
Fx = Design Seismic Force applied to Level x respectively
Ft = that portion of the base shear, V, considered
concentrated at the top of the structure in addition to Fx
hx = height in meter that above the base to Level x
respectively
Level x = that level that is under design consideration. x=1
designates the first level above the base
Symbols and Notations :
Na = near-source factor used in the determination of Ca in
Seismic Zone 4 related to both the proximity of the building
or structure to known faults with known magnitudes
Nv = near-source factor used in the determination of Cv in
Seismic Zone 4 related to both the proximity of the building
or structure to known faults with magnitude
R = numerical coefficient representative of the inherent
overstrength and global ductility capacity of lateral-force-
resisting system
T = elastic fundamental period of vibration, in seconds, of
the structure in the direction under consideration
V = the total design lateral force or shear at the base
W = the total seismic dead load
Z = seismic zone factor
V should not exceed :

V should not be less than :

V should not be less than :

T = C (H)3/4

W = W 1 + W 2 + W 3 + W4
Additional Lateral Force at the Roof Deck :
a) When T > 0.70 sec
F = 0.07 VT < 0.25 V

b) When T < 0.70 sec

F = 0.07 VT < 0.25 V

Lateral Forces at any level x :

Moment at the base :

M = F 1 h1 + F 2 h 2 + F 3 h 3 + F 4 h 4
Check :
F1 + F 2 + F 3 + F 4 = V
Design Base Shear
A. Simplified Method :

Applied only to :
1. Building of any occupancy (including single-
family dwellings) not more than three
stories in height excluding basements that
use light-frame construction.
2. Other buildings not more than the two
stories in height excluding basements.
Lateral Force on each level :

W = W 1 + W2

Moment at the base :

M = F 1 h1 + F 2 h 2
Check :
F1 + F 2 = V