MORPHOLOGY

Asist.dr. Raluca Galia

 Objectives of the course:

- to make students adequately use the conceptual

system specific to English morphology;
- to help students enrich their knowledge
regarding English morphology;
- to make students correctly use the English
language.
 Phonetics and Phonology

Phonetics:
- the branch of Linguistics which studies the main
characteristics of all human vocal noise

- it deals with the human speech sounds, studying

their physical properties and their manner of
articulation, the phenomena of stress, rhythm,
intonation, the rules by which speech sounds are
combined into syllables and larger phonological
constructions, the relation between spoken and
written language
 Phonology:
- the study of sound systems, the study of how
speech sounds structure and function in
languages

A phonetic study shows how the sounds of a

language are made and what their acoustic
properties are, while a phonological study shows
how these sounds are used to convey meaning.
 Lexicology:

- the branch of Linguistics whose field of interest

is the study of the vocabulary of a given
language

- it deals with: sources of vocabulary, word-

formation, words and their meaning(s), changes
of meaning.
 Morphology
- organizes the words into principal and
secondary parts of speech

- studies their forms, meanings and

functions, as well as the rules concerning
the modification of their forms.
 THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF SPEECH
I. THE NOUN
II. THE ADJECTIVE
III. THE VERB
IV. THE ADVERB
 THE SECONDARY PARTS OF SPEECH
V. THE PRONOUN

VI. THE PREPOSITION

VII. THE CONJUNCTION
VIII. THE NUMERAL
1.THE VERB
1.1. The verb classes
1.2. The verb forms
1.3. Finite and non-finite verb forms
1.4. Types of verbs according to complementation
1.5. The categories of verbs
1.5.1. Tense
1.5.2. Aspect
1.5.3. Voice
1.5.4. Mood
1.5.5.1. The Indicative Mood
1.5.5.2. The Subjunctive Mood
1.5.5.3. The Conditional Mood
1.5.5.4. The Imperative Mood
1.6. The non-finite verb forms
1.6.1. The Infinitive
1.6.2. The Gerund
1.6.3. The Participle
1.7. Modality and the modal auxiliaries
THE VERB
Definition: The verb is the part of speech
by means of which people express their
perception of activities, events or states.

1.1. The verb classes

There can be depicted the following
classes and forms of verbs:
- lexical verbs
- auxiliary verbs
- semi-auxiliary verbs
 Lexical verbs: go, read, take, etc.
Auxiliary verbs:
- primary auxiliary: - periphrastic do
- aspectual be and have
- passive be
- modal auxiliaries: shall, should, will,
would, can, could, may, might, must,
ought to; need, dare, used to
 Semi-auxiliary verbs:
- be able to, be about to, be apt to, be
bound to, be due to, be going to, be liable
to, be likely to, be certain to, be sure to,
be to, be unlikely to, be supposed to;
- have to, have got to;
- had better, would rather, would sooner.
The lexical verbs constitute an open set,
meaning that new ones can be added to
the lexicon at any time.

The auxiliary and semi-auxiliary verbs form

closed sets, being limited in number.
1.2. The verb forms
Normally, the English verb has five forms:
- the base form
- the s form
- the past
- the ing participle
- the ed participle.
FORM SYMBOL EXAMPLE FUNCTIONS
1. the V walk a) the
base form go present
tense
(except IIIrd
person
singular):
I/you/we/the
y walk
I/you/we/the
y go
b)
imperative:
Walk!
Go!

c)
subjunctive:
They
demanded
that I
walk/go.
d) the bare
infinitive:
He cant
walk.
They may
go.

e) the to-
infinitive:
He wants us
to walk/go.
2. the s V-s walks the
form goes present
tense,
IIIrd
person
singular:
He/she/it
walks.
He/she/it
goes.
3. the V-ed1 walked the past tense:
past went They
walked/went
home.
4. the V-ing walkin a) the
ing g progressive
participle going aspect:
(present He is
participle) walking/goin
g home.

b) non-finite
ing clauses:
Walking/Goin
g home is
not easy.
5. the ed V-ed2 walke a) the
participle d perfective
(past gone aspect:
participle) She has
walked/gone
home.

b) the passive
voice:
This alley was
walked on
many times.
The ed form is identical for both the past
and the past participle in the regular
lexical verbs.

With the irregular lexical verbs, the number

of forms may vary from three (cut, cuts,
cutting) to eight (be, am, is, are, was,
were, being, been).

The modal auxiliaries do not have the

infinitive (*to can), the ing participle
(*canning) or the ed participle (*caned).
1.3. Finite and non-finite verb forms
The finite forms of the verb are the forms
where the verb shows tense, person or
singular/plural differences.
Ex: I read.
She reads.
They left.
The non-finite verb forms are the forms
that have no person, tense or number.
The elements that differentiate them can
be seen in the following chart:
Finite verb forms Non-finite verb
forms

a) They have tense a) They do not have

distinctions (present tense distinctions.
and past tense)
Ex: She works hard.
She worked hard.
b) They can function b) They cannot
as the verb phrase of function as the verb
a main clause, having phrase of a main
a concord with the clause:
subject. For the verb Ex: *She to come
to be, the concord is home early.
between all persons
and the verb.
Ex: I am
You are
He/She is
We are
For the other lexical
verbs, the concord is
restricted to a
contrast between
IIIrd and non-IIIrd
person singular
present.
Ex: I go home.
He goes home.
The modal auxiliaries
do not have a
concord with the
subject.
Ex: I/you/he/we/they
c) They have mood: c) They do not have
indicative, imperative imperative mood.
and subjunctive
mood.
Ex: He goes home.
Go home!
They suggested
that he go home.
Both the finite and the non-finite verb forms
can be either simple or complex.

a) The simple finite verb forms consist of

only one verb, which can be present, past
or imperative.
Ex: She goes home.
She went home.
Go home!
b) The complex finite verb phrase consists of
two or more verbs. There are four basic
types:
A (modal/periphrastic) modal or
periphrastic auxiliary + the base of the
verb.
Ex: He may call.

B (perfective) the auxiliary have + the

ed participle of the verb.
Ex: He has called.
C (progressive) the auxiliary be + the ing
participle of the verb.
Ex: He is calling.

D (passive) the auxiliary be + the ed

participle of the verb.
Ex: He is called.
These four types enter various combinations
with each other:

AB: He may have called.

AC: He may be calling.
AD: He may be called.
BC: He has been calling.
BD: He has been called.
CD: He is being called.
ABC: He may have been calling.
ABD: He may have been called.
ACD: He may be being called.
BCD: He has been being called.
ABCD: He may have been being called.
c) The simple non-finite verb phrase
consists of only one verb in the infinitive
or participle.
Ex: to call
calling
d) The complex non-finite verb phrase
respects almost the same patterns as the
complex finite verb phrase, with the
exception of A type, as the modal
auxiliaries have no non-finite forms.
Following the above-mentioned
combinations, there can be distinguished
the following types of non-finite verb
phrases:
B: to have called / having called
C: to be calling / *being calling
D: to be called / being called
BC: to have been calling / having been
calling
BD: to have been called / having been
called
CD: to be being called / *being being
called
BCD: to have been being called / having
been being called
1.4. Types of verbs according to
complementation

Complementation refers to the way in

which a verb selects objects, the verb
being thus considered transitive.

There are four main types of transitive

verbs.
a) Copular (intensive) verbs are those
verbs whose meaning changes when
the object following them is dropped:
appear (sad), be (happy), become
(rich), feel (tired), get (ready), grow
(old), keep (silent), look (nice), smell
(sweet), sound (terrible), turn (cold)
b) Monotransitive verbs are those verbs
which require a direct object and they
may be classified further on into:

- verbs which allow the passive

transformation: begin, believe, bring, call,
cut, do, doubt, enjoy, lose, love, meet,
receive, remember, say, start, study, etc.
Ex: My neighbour has cut the tree in
front of his house. The tree in front of
my neighbours house has been cut by
him.
- verbs which do not allow the passive
transformation: have, lack, fit, suit,
resemble.
Ex: He lacks confidence. - *Confidence
is lacked by him.
c) Complex transitive verbs are those
verbs which are followed by an object
and an object complement: call, drive,
find, get, hold, imagine, make, prefer,
suppose, turn, etc.
Ex: Her behaviour drives me insane.
d) Ditransitive verbs are those verbs
followed by an indirect object (normally
animate and positioned first) and a
direct object (normally inanimate): ask,
beg, charge, give, offer, wish, etc.
Ex: He gave his secretary an
envelope.
Some verbs do not accept any object after
them, as they refer to actions or events
which do not involve anyone or anything
other than the subject. These are the
pure intransitive verbs: appear, come,
die, fall, go, lie, rise.
There are some verbs which can be transitive or
intransitive:

a) with little or no difference in meaning:

approach, drink, drive, enter, help, pass, play ,
win
Ex: They drink (wine) every Saturday
evening.
b) with considerable difference in meaning:
begin, change, drop, grow, walk, work, run
Ex: Paul runs very fast.
Jim runs a hotel.
1.5. The categories of verbs
The categories that are used with respect
to the English verb are:
- tense
- aspect
- voice
- mood
1.5.1. Tense
In English there is a clear distinction
between time and tense, the latter
being only loosely related to time.
Time is a universal concept with three
divisions, past, present and future.
Tense is the category of verb which is
used to make reference to these
extra-linguistic realities.
Generally, in many languages, the changes
in the verb forms indicate present, past
and future.

From this perspective, English has only two

tenses, as there are only two cases where
the form of the verb varies:
- present which refers to present time
(listen, come)
- past which refers to past time
(listened, came).
Still, the combination of will + bare
infinitive is considered to refer to the
future; at the same time, the
combinations of be + present participle
and have + participle are also considered
as tenses.
1.5.2. Aspect
Aspect refers to the manner in which the
action of the verb is regarded or
experienced.

Aspect cannot be disconnected from the

idea of time; however, this connection is
regarded in a different way than when
tense is taken into account:
- tense relates an action to a time point,
referring to the external time of a
situation;

- aspect relates the action to an internal

time of a situation, denoting its internal
time organization.
In English, the contrast is between:
- perfective/non-perfective aspect
- progressive/non-progressive aspect.

The categories of tense and aspect

combine, resulting the following
constructions:
a) present perfect / past perfect
Ex: she has called / had called
b) present progressive / past progressive
Ex: she is calling / was calling

c) present perfect progressive / past

perfect progressive
Ex: she has been calling / had been
calling
 The perfect aspect indicates that the
action expressed by the verb precedes a
certain moment in time.

This means that the action or state

expressed by present perfect or past
perfect is considered to be completed at
the time of speaking or at a time spoken
of.
The progressive aspect indicates that the
action expressed by the verb is
considered as being in progress, as
proceeding continuously at a definite
period of time.

It indicates ongoing actions (instead of the

occurrence of an action) or the continuity
of a state (instead of the existence of
that state).
The progressive aspect can also show
simultaneity, incompletion, emphasis or
limited duration of time.

In English there are some verbs which can

occur in the progressive aspect and
others which cannot do so.
Generally, the distinction is between:
- verbs in dynamic use (which accept the
progressive)
- verbs in stative use (which cannot be
used in the progressive).
The dynamic verbs include:
- verbs that denote activities: call, drink,
eat, listen, play, work, write etc.

- verbs that denote processes: change,

deteriorate, grow etc.

- verbs of bodily sensation: ache, feel,

hurt, itch etc.
- transitional event verbs: arrive, die, fall,
leave etc.
- momentary verbs: hit, jump, kick, knock
etc.
The stative verbs include:
- verbs of physical perception: hear, see,
taste, smell, sound

- verbs of mental perception: believe,

doubt, feel, forget, guess, imagine,
remember, think, understand etc.

- verbs of emotion or attitude: adore,

care, like, dislike, forgive, hate, want,
wish, surprise etc.
- verbs showing possession: have, own,
possess etc.

- other verbs such as: be, appear, concern,

contain, involve, lack, need, seem etc.

Some of these verbs can be used in the

progressive aspect only in certain cases.
1.5.3. Voice
Voice is the category of verb which refers to the
relations established between subject and action.

The action can be considered in two different ways,

without altering the facts, the opposition being
between active and passive constructions.
Ex: She helps me.
(subject) + active verb + object

I am helped by her.
(passive subject) + passive verb + by
agent
Unlike the subject, the agent by-phrase is
usually optional. Omission occurs
especially when:

- the agent is unknown

Ex: Order had been restored without
bloodshed.

- the agent is left out as redundant

Ex: John and Michael fought last night and
John was beaten.
The situation reflected by the passive
construction does not differ from the
situation reflected by the active
construction: the nature of the process is
preserved intact and the situational
participants remain in their places.
The transition from the active voice to the
passive voice changes the subjective
appraisal of the situation by the speaker,
the plane of his presentation of it.
However, not all the verbs capable of
taking an object are actually used in the
passive. In particular, the passive form is
alien to many verbs which display a
weak dynamic force, such as have (direct
possessive meaning), belong, cost,
resemble, fail, misgive, etc.
Thus, in accord with their relation to the
passive voice, all the verbs can be
divided into two large sets:

-the set of passivised verbs

-the set of non-passivised verbs.
Verbs that cannot take the passive are:
- intransitive verbs
Ex: I run
- copular verbs
Ex: She looks tired.
- verbs of being and having.
Ex: They have a nice house
He lacks confidence
The auditorium holds 500 people
John resembles his father
The dress becomes her
1.5.4. Mood
Mood is the category of verb which
indicates the way in which the speaker
considers the action or state denoted by
the verb.
It can be conceived as a fact, as actually
taking place or as a command, desire,
possibility or condition.
Thus, the moods for the finite verb forms
are:
- the indicative
- the subjunctive
- the conditional
- the imperative.
1.5.5.1. The Indicative Mood
The indicative mood shows that the
speaker considers the action or state
denoted by the verb as real.
It includes:
- the present tense (simple and progressive)
- the past tense (simple and progressive)
- the present perfect (simple and
progressive)
- the past perfect (simple and progressive)
- the future (simple and progressive).
a) The Present Tense Simple
The formulae describing the structure of
the present tense simple are:
Active voice: V
V + -(e)s (III person sg.)
Passive voice: be (present simple) + V
+ -ed participle
It is a tense which can be used with or
without any reference to a certain time.

Without reference to a certain time, the

present simple falls into two categories:
- the generic present
- the habitual present
The generic present shows states that are
valid not only at the speech time now,
but also at any interval of time.
Ex: Ice melts in the sun.
Water boils at 100 degrees
Celsius.
It is used to express:
1. General timeless statements (eternal
truths)
Ex: Man is mortal.

2. Definitions
Ex: Grammar is / represents the study
of how words and their component parts
combine to form sentences.
3. Proverbs and sayings
Ex: Alls well that ends well.

4. Geographical or mathematical
statements
Ex: The earth moves round the
sun.
Three and five make eight.
The habitual present indicates that a
situation is repeated with a given
frequency, during an interval.
Ex: A dog barks in my yard every day.

The markers (adverbs of frequency)

normally used with the habitual present
are: always, often, usually, frequently,
generally, normally, every
day/month/year, sometimes, rarely,
seldom, regularly, twice a
week/month/year.
With reference to a certain time, the
present simple is used to express
instantaneous activities, single actions
begun and completed approximately at
the moment of speech.
Ex: I place this flower into the hat and
look, a rabbit pops out.
The situations when the instantaneous
present is used are the following:
1. Step-by-step instructions and
demonstrations
Ex: To get to the station you go
straight on.
First I take a bowl and break two
eggs into it.

2. Sport commentaries
Ex: The player hits and the ball goes
into the audience.
3. Performatives (the uttering of the
sentence is simultaneous with the action)
Ex: I pronounce you man and wife.

4. Stage directions
Ex: George enters the room: Hi!

5. Special exclamatory sentences (with

initial adverbials: here, there, up, down,
etc.)
Ex: Here comes the winner!
The present tense can also denote future
time or it can have a past time reference.

The simple present with future reference

shows that the action supposed to happen
in the future is fixed in advance.

It is used in:
1. Officially planned actions (timetables,
statements about the calendar)
Ex: The train for London leaves at six.
Tomorrow is Tuesday.
2. Planned activities where the idea of
certainty is implied
Ex: She returns tomorrow morning.

3. Subordinate clauses of time

Ex: Ill call you when I get home.

4. Subordinate clauses of condition

Ex: If you come here tomorrow, well
go to the cinema
The simple present with past reference
shows that past happenings are portrayed
as if they are going on at the present
moment.

It is used:
1. With verbs of linguistic communication
(to hear, to say, to learn, to understand)
which refer to the receptive end of the
communication process
Ex: I hear shes getting married.
2. In newspaper headlines in order to draw
the attention of the reader
Ex: Plane crashes in Paris.
b) The Present Tense Progressive
The formulae describing the structure of
the present tense progressive are:
Active voice: be (present simple) + V +
-ing participle
Passive voice: be (present progressive)
+ V + -ed participle
It is used to express:
1. An action happening at the moment of
speaking
Ex: Im writing an exercise now.

2. A temporary action (in contrast with an

action usually performed)
Ex: She usually cooks lunch, but today
Im cooking.
3. An annoying action (the verbs are
usually combined with such adverbs as:
always, continually, constantly)
Ex: You are always borrowing money
from me!
4. A definite action planned for the near
future
Ex: Im meeting my friend tomorrow.

5. With activities / processes (to get, to

grow) to express a transition from one
state to another
Ex: Its getting dark.
c) The Present Perfect Simple
The formulae describing the structure of
the present tense perfect simple are:
Active voice: have (present) + V + -ed
participle
Passive voice: be (present perfect
simple) + V + -ed participle
Present perfect is the characteristic tense
used in order to indicate that a period of
time stretches between some time in the
past and the present time.
There are several types of present perfect,
depending on the type of action indicated:

1. the resultative present perfect indicates:

a) an action which is just completed, but
the result is still present (the markers are
just, already).
Ex: They have just solved the problem.
b) an uncompleted action that one is
expecting (the markers are yet, still).
Ex: We havent finished eating yet.
2. the continuative present perfect shows
an action begun in the past and still
continuing to the present, but only with
non-continuous verbs.
Ex: We have known each other since
we were kids.
This hut has been deserted for
three days.
3. the experiential present perfect may
refer to:
a) general experiences (the markers are
never, ever, often, seldom, always)
Ex: I have never visited America.

b) limited experiences (with words

denoting an incomplete period of time:
this week / month / year, today, this
morning)
Ex: We have worked a lot this week.
The present perfect may have future
reference, in adverbial clauses of time in
order to express a future action, prior to
the one represented by a future tense in
the main clause.
Ex: We will paint the fence after we
have had lunch.
d) The Present Perfect Progressive
The formulae describing the structure of
the present perfect progressive are:
Active voice: be (present perfect
simple) + V + -ing
Passive voice: be (present perfect
progressive) + V + -ed participle
The present perfect simple and the present
perfect progressive generally share the
same temporal relations; the present
perfect progressive stresses the limited
duration of an action or state.
The continuative present perfect
progressive shows duration from the past
until now (the markers are since, for,
lately, recently).
Ex: She has been teaching this class
since Christmas.
We have been working a lot
recently.
The resultative present perfect progressive
suggests that one can see, smell, hear or
feel the results of an action that has
recently stopped.
Ex: You have been fighting again. [I
can tell from your black eye]
She has been crying. [Look, her
eyes are red.]
The present perfect progressive can have
an incomplete event use, showing that the
action is not completed
Ex: Who has been eating my dinner?
[Some of my dinner is left.]
Who has eaten my dinner? [All my
dinner is gone.]
The present progressive can also have an
emotional use, conveying feelings of
irritation.
Ex: I have been demanding an
explanation for hours but nobody has yet
dared to speak up.
e) The Past Tense Simple
The formulae describing the structure of
the past tense simple are:
Active voice: V + -ed
Passive voice: be (past tense simple) +
V + -ed participle
The use of past tense simple is connected
with a definite past time division which
may be indicated by several adverbials or
by the linguistic or extralinguistic
context.
The definite past tense expresses an action
or state wholly completed before the
present moment (the markers used are
yesterday, last week / month / year, that
day, once, in 1999, on Sunday, ago, etc.).
Ex: Yesterday I met my old friend Jack.
The habitual past expresses a past habit or
a repeated action in the past.
Ex: She drank three cups of coffee a
day.

In this case, used to or would may also

be employed.
The attitudinal past is related to the
speakers attitude rather than to time,
being most often associated with
politeness. It is used with verbs such as
hope, think, want, wonder. It is considered
to be more polite than the present tense.
Ex: Did you want to see me now?
I wondered if you could help me.
The past tense simple can have a past
perfect value when it refers to past
events that take place in sequence.
Ex: She knocked, entered and
slammed the door.
The past tense simple can also have a
future value (usually in literary style). In
science fiction, future events are told as if
they are recollected.
Ex: In the year 2201 the Martians
visited Earth.
f) The Paste Tense Progressive
The formulae describing the structure of
the past tense progressive are:
Active voice: be (paste tense simple) +
V + - ing
Passive voice: be (past tense
progressive) + V + -ed participle
This tense is used:
- to express an action in progress at a
certain moment in the past, implied by
the context or expressed by adverbials
(at this time yesterday, at 1/2/3 oclock
yesterday / last week / last month, this
time last week / month / year, etc.).
Ex: I was working at 8 oclock
yesterday.
- to indicate that an action was going on
(like a background) at a time when
something else, more important or more
dramatic (the foreground action) took
place.
Ex: While Mary was crossing (the
backgroundaction) the street
yesterday, she saw (the foreground
action) an accident.
- to show that two or more actions were
going on at the same time in the past.
Ex: While Mary was cooking, her
husband was reading the newspaper.

- to express a repeated action in the past

which annoys the speaker.
Ex: My husband was always getting
into trouble.
- to express gradual progress without any
temporal marker.
Ex: The car was getting worse.

- with verbs such as hope, think, want,

wonder it makes a request sound more
polite but less definite.
Ex: I was wondering if you could help
me.
f) The Past Perfect Tense Simple
The formulae describing the structure of
the past perfect simple are:
Active voice: have (past simple) + V + -
ed participle
Passive voice: be (past perfect simple)
+ V + -ed participle
Described usually as a past-in-the-past, the
past perfect simple is generally used:
- to express a past action that took place
before a past moment or before another
action in the past (the markers are when,
after, before, as soon as).
Ex: When I came home, he had already
done his homework.
I came home after he had done his
homework.
He had done his homework before
I came home.
- to express duration up to a certain
moment in the past (marker: by the
time.)
Ex: By the time the rain started, we
had got home.
- to show that a past action was finished a
little time before another past action (the
markers are: just, already, hardly / barely /
scarcely and no sooner).
Ex: She told us that her brother had
just left.
We didnt know that he had already
repaired his car.
I had hardly / scarcely entered
the room when somebody knocked at the
door.
With the last four markers inversion may be
used:
Ex: Hardly / scarcely / barely had I
entered the room when somebody
knocked at the door.
No sooner had she seen the photos
than she remembered everything about
the accident.
- with since and for when the point of
reference is past.
Ex: In 1999 I had been a teacher for ten
years.
I knew she had not seen him since
Christmas.
- in Indirect Speech, to express a Past Tense
or a Present Perfect from Direct Speech.
Ex: I saw this film last week, Nick said.
Nick said he had seen that film a
week before.

I have never visited Madrid, he

explained.
He explained he had never visited
Madrid.
- to express a Past Conditional in a
conditional clause.
Ex: I would have given her the book if I
had met her.

- to express an unfulfilled wish.

Ex: I wish I had not missed the train.
- after would rather (when the subjects are
different) or as if / as though.
Ex: Yesterday Id rather you had
stayed here than gone there.
She spoke about that play as if /
though she had seen it.
- with such verbs as to expect, to hope, to
intend, to mean to express past hope or
intention which was not fulfilled.
Ex: I had hoped / intended / meant to
find tickets for that performance but I
wasnt able to.
g) The Past Perfect Progressive
The formulae describing the structure of
the past perfect progressive are:
Active voice: be (past perfect simple) +
V + - ing participle
Passive voice: be (past perfect
progressive) + V + -ed participle
The past perfect progressive tense is used:
- to underline the continuity of a past
action up to a past moment (the markers
are since, for).
Ex: The pupils had been reading the
lesson for five minutes when the teacher
entered the classroom.
- to show that the effect of a past action
was still apparent.
Ex: She told me that her son had been
fighting. (the blue eye was still visible)

- to convey the speakers irritation.

Ex: I had been trying for hours to find
him, but with no result.
h) Means of expressing future time
As there is no obvious future tense in
English corresponding to the time/tense
parallel for present and past, future time is
rendered by means of simple present or
progressive forms or by means of modal
auxiliaries or semi-auxiliaries.
The present simple is used:
1.For future actions when we refer to
programs, timetables etc.
Ex: The bus arrives at 7.30.

2. In time and condition clauses

Ex: Ill come when you call me.
Ill come if you call me.

3. For planned activities where the idea

of certainty is implied
Ex: She returns tomorrow morning.
The present progressive is used to express
a definite action planned for the near
future.
Ex: What are you doing tomorrow?
Be going to shows:
1. Intention (the future fulfilment of
present intention)
Ex: What is she going to tell us?

2. Prediction
Ex: It is going to rain in a few minutes.

3. Planned actions
Ex: My uncle is going to buy a boat
next year.
What is called future simple (construction
with the modals shall/will + verb) is used:
1. For on-the-spot decisions
Ex: Of course Ill help you!

2. For promises, threats, warnings,

requests, hopes and offers
Ex: If you repair the car, youll have a
three days holiday.
Will you help me?
3. For actions/situations/events which will
definitely happen in future and which we
can control
Ex: My friend will see an interesting
movie in the afternoon.
The future progressive is used:

1. To express a future activity that will

begin before and will continue after a
certain moment in the future
Ex: This time tomorrow we shall be
watching TV.
2. To indicate that an activity will extend
over a whole future period
Ex: She will be writing letters all day.

3. To express future events that are

planned
Ex: We shall be spending our next
holiday in the mountains.
The future perfect is used for actions
which will be finished before a stated
period of time Especially with words
before, by, by then, until etc.
Ex: She will have delivered all the
newspapers by 8 o`clock.
The future perfect progressive is used to
emphasize the duration of an action up to
a certain time in the future
Ex: By the end of next month, she will
have been teaching for twenty years.
Be to indicates:
1. Something that is destined to happen
Ex: The famous tennis player began
the match in which he was to break his
arm.

2. An official plan or arrangement

Ex: She is to see her dentist tomorrow.
3. The will of a person, different from the
speaker
Ex: This bad news is to be given to
him after his exam.

4. Duty
Ex: What exercises are we to do?
5. Possibility, probability
Ex: Prices are to be much higher soon.

Be about to is used to express something

that will happen in the immediate future
Ex: I am about to go to the seaside.
1.5.5.2. The Subjunctive Mood
The subjunctive mood expresses wish,
hope, suggestion, demand or doubt. There
are three separate types:
a) the mandative subjunctive it has only
one form (the base form) for all
persons.
It is used in subordinate that-clauses, when
in the main clause there is an
expression of recommendation,
resolution, demand, surprise, etc.
This use of the subjunctive is typical
especially for the formal style; in informal
contexts the to-infinitive or should +
infinitive constructions are used.
Ex: They require that he pay in
advance.
They require him to pay in
advance.
They require that he should pay in
advance.
b) the formulaic subjunctive it has the
same form as the mandative subjunctive
(that is, the base form for all persons), but
it used only in certain set phrases.
Ex: Be it so!
Suffice it to say that he is guilty.
Come what may, I wont change my
mind.
c) the were-subjunctive it has only one
form, were, for all persons (was for the Ist
and IIIrd person singular can be used in
the informal style). It is used in
subordinate clauses after optative verbs
like wish and also in conditional and
concessive clauses.
Ex: I wish I were rich.
If I were rich, I would travel around
the world.
He behaves as if he were rich.
1.5.5.3. The Conditional Mood
It has two tenses, the present and the
perfect conditional, described by the
formulae:
Present conditional: would + infinitive
Perfect conditional: would + have + V
+ -ed participle
It is used in conditional sentences:
Ex: If I had a car, I would travel more
often.
If I had had a car, I would have
traveled more often.

Modesty and politeness are also

expressed by means of conditional forms:
Ex: Would you mind opening the
door?
Would you be so kind to help me?
1.5.5.4. The Imperative Mood
The imperative form coincides with the
short infinitive, having affirmative and
negative forms. The imperative mood is
used only in the second person.
Ex: Come here!
Do not shout!
The imperative can also have a perfect
form, rarely used in present day English:
Ex: Have the car searched!

Passive constructions correspond only to

the formulae be + V + -ed participle.
Ex: Be seated!
Be informed!
The imperative is generally used to express:
1. Direct commands, requests,
suggestions:
Ex: Go home!
Open the window!
Stay calm!

2. Warnings:
Ex: Be careful!
3. Directions:
Ex: Go straight on!

4. Instructions:
Ex: Add some sugar and stir.
5. Prohibitions (in public notices):
Ex: Keep off the grass!

6. Advice (after always and never):

Ex: Always be polite!
Never speak to strangers!
7. Invitations:
Ex: Come and have a drink with me!

8. Offers:
Ex: Have a cookie!