Science, Systems, Matter,

and Energy
Key Concepts

Science as a process for understanding

Components and regulation of systems
Matter: forms, quality, and how it
changes; laws of matter
Energy: forms, quality, and how it
changes; laws of energy
Nuclear changes and radioactivity
Science, and Critical Thinking
Scientific data Ask a question

Facts
Scientific hypothesis Do experiments
and collect data
Interpret data

Explanation of what is
observed in nature Formulate
hypothesis
Well-tested and
accepted patterns
to explain data In data become
Scientific (natural) laws scientific laws

Scientific theories Do more

Experiments to
test hypothesis
Consensus science
Data, theories, and laws Revise hypothesis
if necessary
that widely accepted by
the scientific community
Well-tested and
Frontier science accepted
hypotheses
Preliminary results become
scientific theories Fig. 3-2 p. 41
Scientific Method
Make Observations

Formulate a Hypothesis

Test Hypothesis

Collect Data

Interpret Data

Draw Conclusions
 Controlled Experiment
(Single Variable Analysis)
Experimental Group
Variables change in a known way
Independent variable
Dependent Variable

Control Group (Controls)

Variables are not changed
Controls
Constants

Data
Quantitative - numbers
Qualitative - descriptions
Types of Reasoning

Inductive reasoning Deductive reasoning

Using specific Reasoning that goes
observations and from the general to the
measurements to arrive specific
at a general conclusion top-down reasoning
bottom-up reasoning
Models and Behavior of Systems

System a set of components that

1) function in a regular and predictable
manner
2) can be isolated for observation and
study
Models and Behavior of Systems

Inputs
matter, energy, information
Flows
throughputs of matter, energy, or information
at certain rates
Stores
storage areas for matter, energy or information
Outputs
Form of matter, energy, or information that
flow out of the system and into sinks in the
environment
Models
Approximate representations or simulations of real
systems to
find out how systems work
evaluate which ideas or hypotheses work

Mental models what do you think

Mathematical models one or more equations
To describe the behavior of a system
Make predictions about the behavior of a system
Conceptual models
Qualitative
Numerical models
Computer simulations
System Regulation
Feedback loop when output of matter, energy, or
information is fed back into the system as an
input that changes the system.
Positive Feedback causes change in the same direction
Negative Feedback one change leads to a lessoning of that
change.

Coupled loops
System Regulation
Homeostasis maintenance of a favorable internal
condition of a system despite external changes.
Time Delay delay in expected effect
Synergy the combined effect of two or more
processes is greater than the sum of the separate
effects

Fig. 3-3 p. 46
Matter: Forms, Structure, and Quality
Elements
Building blocks of matter
Compounds
Two or more different
elements held together by
chemical bonds
Mixtures
Combinations of various
elements, compounds, or
both
Molecules
Two or more atoms of the
same or different elements
held together by chemical
bonds
Example: O2
Atom the smallest unit of matter that
is unique to a particular element.

Subatomic Particles
Protons
Positively charges
Neutrons
uncharged
Electrons
Negatively charged
Atomic Characteristics

Atomic Number
Number of protons in the nucleus
Atomic Mass
Number of protons and neutrons
Ions
Atoms that have lost or gained electrons
Isotopes
Forms of a element having the same atomic
number but a different mass number
Identified by attaching their mass number to
their name
U235
Examples of Atoms

Fig. 3-4 p. 48
Chemical Bonds
Chemical formulas show the
number of atoms of each
type in a compound
Contains symbol for each
element
Uses subscripts to
represent the number of
atoms
Ionic bonds
Bonds between oppositely
charged ions
NaCl (Na+ and Cl-)
Chemical Bonds

Covalent bonds
bonds between
uncharged atoms
H22O

Hydrogen bonds
Weak attraction
between molecules
of covalent
compounds
Organic vs Inorganic Compounds

Organic compounds
contain carbon atoms
Held together by covalent bonds

Hydrocarbons
Carbon and hydrogen
methane (CH3)
Chlorinated hydrocarbons
Carbon, hydrogen, and chlorine
DDT (C14H9Cl5)
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Carbon, chlorine, and flourine
freon (CCl2F2)
Organic Compounds

Simple carbohydrates
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
Simple sugars (C6H12O6)
Complex carbohydrates
Two or more simple sugars hooked together
Proteins
Monomers of amino acids linked together
Genetic Material
Nucleic Acids Genes specific
DNA and RNA sequence of nucleotides
in a DNA molecule

Fig. 3-6 p. 50
Organic vs Inorganic Compounds

Inorganic compounds
Lack carbon-carbon or carbon-
hydrogen covalent bonds

NaCl, H2O, N2O, CO2, NH3

The Four States of Matter

Solid

Liquid

Gas

Plasma
Fig. 3-7 p. 50
The Four States of Matter

Plasma
high energy mixture of
positively charged ions and
negatively charged electrons

sun, stars, lightening

Matter Quality and Material Efficiency

High-quality matter
Concentrated
Near the earths surface
Great potential for use
Low-quality matter
Dilute
Deep underground
Little potential as a resource
Material efficiency
(resource productivity)
Total amount of material
needed to produce each unit
of goods and services
Energy: What is it?

The capacity to do work

and transfer heat.

Work = force x
distance
Energy: Forms

Kinetic energy
Energy contained in moving objects
Wind, streams, electricity
Potential energy
Stored energy
Stick of dynamite, water behind a dam
Electromagnetic radiation

Energy radiated in the form of waves as a result

of changing electric and magnetic fields

Fig. 3-9 p. 52
Heat Energy
Heat
The total kinetic energy of all the
moving atoms, ions, or molecules
within a given substance
Temperature
Average speed of motion of the atoms,
ions, or molecules in a sample of matter
at a given moment
Transfer of Heat Energy
Convection Conduction
Heating water in the bottom of a pan
causes some of the water to vaporize
into bubbles. Because they are
lighter than the surrounding water,
they rise. Water then sinks from the
top to replace the rising bubbles.This
up and down movement (convection)
eventually heats all of the water.
Radiation
Heat from a stove burner causes As the water boils, heat from the hot
atoms or molecules in the pans stove burner and pan radiate into the
bottom to vibrate faster. The vibrating
atoms or molecules then collide with surrounding air, even though air
conducts very little heat.
nearby atoms or molecules, causing
them to vibrate faster. Eventually,
molecules or atoms in the pans
handle are vibrating so fast it
becomes too hot to touch.
Fig. 3-11 p. 553
Energy: Quality

High-quality
energy
concentrated
Low-quality
energy
dispersed

Fig. 3-12 p. 53
Physical and Chemical Changes
The Law of Conservation of Matter:
matter is neither created nor destroyed

Matter is not consumed

Matter only changes form

There is no away
How harmful are pollutants?

1) Chemical nature of pollutants

2) Concentration
3) Persistence
Degradable (nonpersistent) pollution
Broken down completely by natural, chemical or
biological processes
Slowly degradable (persistent) pollution
May take decades or longer
DDT
Nondegradable pollutants
Cannot be broken down
Lead, mercury, arsenic
Nuclear Changes
nuclei of isotopes spontaneously change
1) Natural radioactive
decay
Unstable isotopes
spontaneously emit
fast-moving
particles, high
energy radiation, or
both at fixed rates

radioisotopes

Fig. 3-13 p. 56
Damaging ionizing
radiation
Ionizing Radiation
1) Gamma rays
High-energy
electromagnetic
radiation
2) Alpha particles
Fast moving,
positively charged
chunks of matter
3) Beta particles
High speed electrons
Fig. 3-13 p. 56
Ionizing Radiation: Effects
Genetic Damage
Mutations or changes
in DNA that alter
genes and
chromosomes

Somatic Damage to
tissue
Burns, eye cataracts,
certain cancers
Fig. 3-13 p. 56
Nuclear Changes
Radioactive Decay
Radioactive isotopes decay at
a characteristic fixed rate
called a half-life (t1/2)
Time for half the nuclei in a
sample to decay
Cant be changed due to T,
P, or chemical rxns
Used to estimate time a
sample of radioisotope
must be stored safely
before it decays to a safe
level half-life X 10
Radioactive Decay and Half-life
Half-Lives of Selected Radioisotopes
Time needed for one-
Isotope Radiation Emmitted
half of the nuclei in a Half-Life
radioisotope to emit Potassuium-
42
12.4 hrs Alpha, beta

its radiation (decay) Iodine-131 8 days Beta, gamma

Characteristic half-life Colbalt-60 5.27 yrs Beta, gamma

for each radioisotope Hydogren-3

tritium
12.5 yrs Beta

General rule: Strontium-90 28 yrs Beta

radioisotopes must be Carbon-14 5,370 yrs Beta

stored for 10 half-lives Plutonium-239 24,000 hrs Alpha, gamma

Uranium-235 710 million yrs Alpha, gamma

Uranium-238 4.5 billion yrs Alpha, gamma

Nuclear Reactions

Fission Fusion

Fig. 3-16 p. 57 Fig. 3-17 p. 58

 Nuclear Changes
Nuclear Fission
Fissionsplitting of nuclei
Nuclei of isotopes with
large masses split into
lighter nuclei when struck
by neutrons
Release energy and more
neutrons setting off a
chain reaction
Atomic bomb and nuclear
power plants
 235
U
92
n
92
Kr 235
36 n U
92

235 n
U
92 n
141 Ba
92 56
Kr n
36
92 Kr
36 n
n n

n
235 n
U
92 141 Ba
56
92 Kr
141 36 n
Ba
56 235
U
92
n
23
n 5 U
141 Ba 92
56
235
U
92
Nuclear Changes
Nuclear Fusion
Fusionjoining of nuclei
Isotopes of light elements are
forced together at high Ts until
they fuse into a heavier nucleus
Harder to accomplish than
fission, but releases more
energy
Fusion of H nuclei to form He
nuclei is a source of energy
for sun and stars
H bombs
 Fuel Reaction Conditions Products

D-T Fusion
+ Neutron

Hydrogen-2 or + Energy
deuterium nucleus +

+ + +
100 million C
Hydrogen-3 or Helium-4
tritium nucleus nucleus

+ Proton

Neutron
 Laws Governing Energy Changes

First Law of Thermodynamics (Energy)

Energy is neither created nor destroyed

Energy only changes form

You cant get something for nothing

ENERGY IN = ENERGY OUT

Laws Governing Energy Changes

Second Law of Thermodynamics

In every transformation, some energy is

converted to heat

You cannot break even in terms of

energy quality
 Chemical Mechanical
Chemical
Solar energy
energy energy
energy (moving,
(photosynthesis) (food)
thinking,
living)

Waste Waste Waste Waste

heat heat heat heat
Connections: Matter and Energy Laws
and Environmental Problems

High-throughput (waste) economy

Matter-recycling economy

Low-throughput
economy

Fig. 3-20 p. 60;

see Fig. 3-21 p. 61