Protection to the Brain

Nervous tissue is soft and delicate,

and the irreplaceable neurons can be
injured or destroyed by even slight
pressure
The brain is protected from injury by
The skull
Surrounding membranes called meninges
A watery cushion of cerebrospinal fluid
The blood-brain barrier
 Protection to the Brain
The skull is a self-bracing
arrangement of bones that
encapsulates the brain
It was presented in Chapter 7 and
thus will receive only passing
reference in this section
 Meninges

The meninges are three connective

tissue membranes that lie just
external to the brain and spinal
cord
 Meninges

The meningeal membranes

Cover and protect the CNS structures
Protect blood vessels and enclose venous
sinuses
Contain cerebrospinal fluid
Form partitions within the skull
 Meninges

From external to internal, the meningeal

layers are
Dura mater
Arachnoid
Pia mater
 The Dura Mater

The leathery dura mater is by far the

strongest of the meninges
Where it surrounds the brain it is a
double layer membrane
 The Dura Mater

The periosteal layer is the superficial and

lines the inner surface (periostium) of the
skull
The deeper meningeal layer forms the true
external covering of the brain
 The Dura Mater

The brains dural layers are fused

together except in certain areas where
they enclose the blood filled dural sinuses
The dural sinuses collect venous blood
and direct it into the internal jugular veins
of the neck
 The Dura Mater

In several places the meningeal dura mater

extends inward to form flat septa (partitions) that
limit movement of the brain within the skull
 The Dura Mater

The falx cerebri dips into the longitudinal fissure

It attaches to the crista galli of the ethmoid bone
 The Dura Mater

The falx cerebelli forms a midline partition

that runs along the vermis of the cerebellum
 The Dura Mater

The tentorium cerebelli extends into the

transverse fissure between the cerebral
hemispheres and the cerebellum
 The Arachnoid Mater

The middle membrane forms a loose brain

covering over the surface of the cerebrum
It is separated from the dura mater by a
narrow serous cavity, the subdural space
Beneath the arachnoid membrane is the
wide subarachnoid space
 The Arachnoid Mater

The subarachnoid space is filled with

cerebrospinal fluid and contains the
largest blood vessels serving the brain
Since the arachnoid is fine and elastic,
these blood vessels are rather poorly
protected
 The Arachnoid Mater

Arachnoid villi protrude through the overlying

dura mater and into the dural sinuses
overlying the superior aspect of the brain
Cerebrospinal fluid is absorbed into the
venous blood sinuses through these valvelike
villi
 The Pia Mater

The pia mater is a delicate connective

tissue that is richly invested with tiny
blood vessels
It is the only membrane that clings
tightly to the brain, following its every
convolution
 The Pia Mater

Meningitis is an inflammation of the

meningeal layers that is caused by
either a bacterial or viral infection that
can spread to the underlying nerve
tissue
Brain inflammation is called encephalitis
 Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
CSF is a watery brothfound in and
around the brain and spinal cord
It forms a liquid cushion that gives
buoyancy to the CNS organs
With the brain floating, CSF reduces
brain weight by 97% and thus
prevents the brain from crushing
under its own weight
CSF also protects the brain and
spinal cord from trauma
 Cerebrospinal Fluid CSF
CSF also helps to nourish the brain
It also helps to remove wastes
produced by neurons
Finally, it carries chemical signals
between different parts of the CNS
Although it performs many functions
there is 100-160 ml of fluid (about a
half cup) present in the body at any
one time
 Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
CSF is a similar in composition to
blood plasma, from which it arises
It contains less protein and more
sodium and chloride ions
 Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
The figure at the
right depicts the
sites of CSF
production and
its circulation
Most CSF is
made in the
choroid plexuses
which are
membranes on
the roofs of the
four brain
ventricles
 Choroid Plexus
Choroid plexus
hang from the
roof of each
ventricle
The plexuses
are clusters of
thin walled
capillaries
enclosed by a
layer of
ependymal
cells
 Choroid Plexus
The capillaries
of the choroid
plexus are
fairly
permeable and
fluid filters
continuously
from the
bloodstream
into the
ventricles
 Choroid Plexus
The choroid
plexus cells are
joined by tight
junctions and
have ion pumps
that allow them
to modify this
filtrate by
actively
transporting
only certain ions
across their
membranes into
the CSF pool
 Choroid Plexus
After entering the ventricles, the
CSF moves freely through these
chambers
Some CSF enters the central canal
of the spinal cord, but most enters
the subarachnoid space through the
lateral and median apertures in the
walls of the fourth ventricle
In the subarachnoid space, the CSF
bathes the outer surface of the brain
and cord
 The Choroid Plexus
Cerebrospinal fluid arises from the
blood and returns to it at a rate of
about 500 ml a day
The choroid plexus also helps to
cleanse the CSF by removing waste
products and other unnecessary
solutes
 CSF Circulation

The motion of the CSF is aided by the long microvilli

of the ependymal cells lining the ventricles
 Blood-Brain Barrier
The brain has a rich supply of
capillaries that provide its nervous
tissues with nutrients, oxygen, and
all other vital molecules
However, some blood-borne
molecules that can cross other
capillaries of the body cannot cross
the brain capillaries
 Blood-Brain Barrier
Blood-borne toxins, such are urea,
mild toxins from food, bacterial
toxins, are prevented from entering
brain tissue by the blood-brain barrier
The barrier is a protective mechanism
that helps maintain a stable internal
environment for the brain
 Blood-Brain Barrier
The brain is very dependent on a
constant internal environment
Fluctuations in the concentration of
ions, hormones, or amino acids,
would alter the brains function
Hormones and amino acids can influence
neurotransmitters
Ions (K+) can affect neuron thresholds
 Blood-Brain Barrier
Blood-borne substances within the
brains capillaries are separated from
the extra- cellular space and neurons
by
Continuous endothelium of the capillary
walls
Relatively thick basal lamina surrounding
the external face of the capillary
To a limited extend the feet of the
astrocytes that cling to the capillaries
 Blood-Brain Barrier
Basal lamina (cut)

The capillary endothelial cells are joined almost

seamlessly by tight junctions
They are the least permeable capillaries in the
body
The relative impermeability of brain capillaries
accounts for most of the blood brain barrier
 Blood-Brain Barrier
The blood-brain barrier is a selective,
rather than absolute barrier
Nutrients, such as glucose, essential
amino acids, and some electrolytes,
move passively by facilitated
diffusion through the endothelial cell
membranes
 Blood-Brain Barrier
The barrier is ineffective against fats,
fatty acids, oxygen, and carbon dioxide,
and other fat-soluble molecules that
diffuse easily through all plasma
membranes
This explains why blood-borne alcohol,
nicotine, and anesthetics can affect the
brain
The barrier is not completely uniform
and not completely developed in infants
 The Spinal Cord
The spinal cord runs
through the vertebral
canal of the vertebral
column from the
foramen magnum
superiorly to the level of
vertebra L1 or L2
inferiorly
 The Spinal Cord
The functions of the spinal cord
include:
Through the nerves that attach to it, the
spinal cord is involved in the sensory and
motor innervation of the entire body
inferior to the head
It provides a two-way conduction pathway
for signals between the body and the brain
It is a major center for reflexes
 The Spinal Cord

The spinal cord is protected by bone,

cerebro- spinal fluid, and meninges
Dura mater, arachnoid, pia mater
 The Spinal Cord

Between the bony vertebrae and the spinal

dural sheath is a large epidural space filled with
a soft padding of fat and a network of veins
Cerebrospinal fluid fills the subarachnoid space
 The Spinal Cord
Inferiorly, the
dural and
subarachnoid
membranes
extend to the
level of S2
while the spinal
cord ends at L1
Subarachnoid
space beyond
L1 is an ideal
site for a spinal
tap
 The Spinal Cord
The spinal cord does not extend the
full length of the vertebral column,
ending in the superior lumbar region
The spinal cord does not run all the
way to the coccyx because it grows
slower caudally than the spinal
column
 The Spinal Cord
At 3 months after conception it extends
to the coccyx
At the time of birth it ends at L3
During childhood it attains the adult
position, terminating at the level of the
intervertebral disc between L1 and L2
But it does vary among people, ranging
from T12 to the superior margin of L3
 The Spinal Cord
The spinal cord
terminates in a
tapering cone shaped
structure called the
conus medullaris
The cone tapers into
a long filament of
connective tissue, the
filum terminale, which
is covered with pia
mater and attaches to
the coccyx inferiorly
 The Spinal Cord

There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves

(PNS) that arise from the spinal cord by
paired roots and exit from the vertebral
column via the intervertebral formina
 The Spinal Cord
Each segment of the spinal cord is
defined by a pair of spinal nerves
that lie just superior to their
corresponding vertebra
8 cervical
12 thoracic
5 lumbar
5 sacral
1 coccygeal
 The Spinal Cord
The segments of the spinal cord all
lie superior to their corresponding
vertebrae because of the rostral shift
of the spinal cord during
development
 The Spinal Cord
The spinal cord has
obvious enlargements
where the nerves
serving the upper and
lower limb arise
Cervical enlargement
Lumbar enlargement
 The Spinal Cord
Because the cord does not reach
the end of the vertebral column,
the lumbar and sacral spinal nerve
roots angle sharply downward and
travel inferiorly before reaching
their intervertebral foramina
This collection of nerve roots at the
inferior end of the vertebral canal
is called the cauda equina
 The SpinalCord
The arrangement of
the cauda equina
reflects the fact that
vertebral column
growth proceeds
more rapidly than
does the growth of
the spinal cord
 The Spinal Cord

The spinal cord is wider laterally than from an

anterior/posterior perspective
Two deep grooves, the posterior median sulcus
and the anterior median fissure run the length
of the cord and divide it into right and left
halves
 Gray Matter of the Spinal
Cord
The spinal cord consists of an outer
region of white matter and an inner
region of gray matter
As in other parts of the CNS, the gray
matter of the spinal cord consists of
a mixture of neuron cell bodies, short
unmyelinated axons and dendrites
and neuroglia
Gray Matter and Spinal Roots

The gray matter consists of a mixture of

neuron cell bodies, their unmyelinated
processes, and neuroglia (support cells)
Gray Matter and Spinal Roots

The white matter is composed of myelinated

and unmyelinated nerve fibers that represent
ascending, descending and transverse pathways
 Gray Matter and Spinal Roots

In cross section the gray matter is shaped like an H

The gray commissure contains the narrow central
cavity of the spinal cord, the central canal
Gray Matter and Spinal Roots

The two posterior arms of the H are the

posterior horns, whereas the two anterior
arms are the anterior horns
Gray Matter and Spinal Roots

In three dimensions these arms run the

entire length of the spinal cord and are
called the dorsal and ventral columns
Gray Matter and Spinal Roots

Additionally, small lateral columns called

lateral horns are present in the thoracic and
superior lumbar segments of the spinal cord
Gray Matter and Spinal Roots

This illustration depicts the basic

organization of the spinal gray matter
The posterior horns are almost entirely
comprised of interneurons
Gray Matter and Spinal Roots

These interneurons receive information

from sensory neurons whose cell bodies
lie outside the spinal cord in dorsal root
ganglia, and whose axons reach the
cord in dorsal roots
Gray Matter and Spinal Roots

The anterior (and lateral horns) contain

cell bodies of motor neurons that send
their axons out of the cord in ventral
roots to supply muscles and glands
Gray Matter and Spinal Roots

Interneurons also occur in the anterior horns,

but they are not emphasized in this picture
The size of the anterior motor horns varies
along the length of the spinal cord reflecting
the amount of skeletal musculature innervated
Gray Matter and Spinal Roots

The anterior horns are the largest in the

cervical and lumbar regions of the cord,
which innervate the upper and lower
limbs respectively
Gray Matter and Spinal Roots

The gray matter can be further divided

according to the innervation of the
somatic and visceral regions of the body
Gray Matter and Spinal Roots

This scheme recognizes four zones of

spinal cord gray matter; somatic sensory
(ss), visceral sensory (vs); Visceral motor
(vm), and somatic motor (sm)
White Matter and Spinal Cord

The white matter of the spinal cord is

composed of mylinated and unmylinated
axons
 White Matter and Spinal
Cord
Communication within the white
matter of the spinal cord occurs
between different parts of the
spinal cord and between the spinal
cord and the bran
These fibers are of three types
Ascending
Descending
Commissural
 White Matter and Spinal
Cord
Ascending fibers in the spinal cord carry
sensory information from the sensory
neurons of the body to the brain
Descending fibers carry motor
instructions from the brain to the spinal
cord, to stimulate contraction of the
bodys muscles and secretion of its
glands
Commissural fibers cross from one side
of the cord to the other
 White Matter and Spinal Cord

The ascending and descending tracts make up

most of the white matter of the spinal cord
Ascending tracts are shown in blue and labeled at left
Descending tracts are shown in red and labeled at
right
 White Matter and Spinal Cord

The white matter on each side of the spinal cord

is divided into three white columns, or funiculi,
named according to their positions in the cord,
posterior, anterior, and lateral funiculi
 White Matter and Spinal Cord

Posterior funiculi - also called dorsal white column

Anterior funiculi -adjacent the anterior median
fissure
Lateral funiculi - adjacent the lateral horn
 White Matter and Spinal
Cord
The three funiculi contain many fiber
tracts, each of which consists of
axons with similar destinations and
functions
For the most part these spinal tracts
are named according to their origin
and destination
 White Matter and Spinal Cord

The ascending and descending tracts make up

most of the white matter of the spinal cord
Ascending tracts are shown in blue and labeled at left
Descending tracts are shown in red and labeled at
right
 Sensory and Motor Pathways
All major spinal
tracts are
segments of
multi-neuron
pathways that
connect the
brain to the body
Sensory
information to
the brain
Instructions to
effectors to the
body
 Sensory and Motor
Pathways
Generalizations about spinal pathways
Most pathways cross over from one side of
the CNS to the other at some point
Most consist of a chain of two or three
neurons that contribute to successive tracts
Most exhibit somatotopy, a precise spatial
relationship among the tract fibers that
reflects the orderly mapping of the body
All pathways and tracts are paired (right
and left) with a member of the pair on each
side of the spinal cord or brain
Ascending (Sensory)
Foot
Pathways
Neuron Pathways
Axons of sensory
(1st order) neurons
enter dorsal root of
spinal cord
Synapse with 2nd
order neurons in
medial lemniscal
tract and ascend to
Thalamus
Synapse with 3rd
order neurons
which transmit to
somato- sensory
cortex
 Ascending (Sensory) Tracts
The ascending pathways conduct
sensory impulses upward, typically
through chains of three successive
neurons (first-, second, and third-order
neurons) to various regions of the
brain
Most of the incoming information
results from stimulation of
General sensory receptors
Touch / pressure / temperature / pain
Stimulation of proprioceptors
Muscle stretch / tendon / joint
 Ascending (Sensory)
Pathways
There are four main ascending pathways
The dorsal column (fasciculus gracilis and
fasciculus cuneatus) and spinothalamic
(lateral and anterior) pathways transmit
sensory impulses to the primary
somatosensory cortex for interpretation
The posterior and anterior spinocerebellar
pathways convey information on
proprioception to the cerebellum which uses
this information to coordinate body
movements
 Ascending (Sensory) Tracts
In general, sensory information is
conveyed along these main pathways
on each side of the spinal cord
Four transmit impulses to the sensory
cortex for conscious interpretation
Fasciculi cuneatus
Fasciculi gracilis
Lateral spinothalamic tract
Anterior spinothalamic tract
Two transmit impulses to the cerebellum
to coordinate muscle activity
Anterior spinocerebellur tract
Posterior spinocerebellur tract
 Ascending (Sensory) Tracts

Posterior funiculi (dorsal white column)

Fasciculi cuneatus
Fasciculi gracilis
Transmit information from the fine touch and
pressure receptors and joint proprioceptors
These tracts comprise what is referred to as
discriminative touch and conscious proprioception
 Ascending (Sensory) Tracts

Lateral and anterior funiculi

Lateral spinothalamic tract
Anterior spinothalamic tract
Convey information on pain, temperature,
deep pressure and course touch
(undiscriminated)
 Ascending (Sensory) Tracts

Anterior and posterior funiculi

Anterior spinocerebellar tract
Posterior spinocerebellar tract
Convey information from proprioceptors (muscle
and tendon stretch) to the cerebellum which uses
this information to coordinate skeletal muscle
activity
 Ascending (Sensory) Tracts
Since the spinocerebellar tracts do not
terminate in the cortex, these
pathways do not contribute to
conscious sensation
The spinocerebellar tracts do not
decussate and thus contribute to
ipsilateral innervation
 Descending (Motor) Tracts

The descending motor tracts that deliver

impulses from the brain to the spinal cord are
divided into two groups
Pyramidal tracts
All others
Descending (Motor) Tracts
Motor pathways involve two neurons,
referred to as upper and lower motor
neurons
The pyramidal cells of the motor
cortex, as well as the neurons in
subcortical motor nuclei that give rise
to other descending motor pathways,
are called upper motor neurons
The anterior horn motor neurons,
which actually innervate the skeletal
muscles are called lower motor
neurons
 Descending (Motor) Tracts

The lateral (pyramdial) and anterior

corticospinal tracts are the major motor
pathways concerned with voluntary
movement, particularly precise or skilled
movement
 Descending (Motor) Tracts

The pyramdial tracts are also called the direct

pathways because their axons descend without
synapsing from the pyramidal cells of the
primary motor cortex all the way to the spinal
cord
 Descending (Motor) Tracts
Pyramidal tracts synapse primarily
with interneurons, but also directly
with anterior horn motor neurons,
principally those controlling limb
muscles
The anterior horn motor neurons
activate the skeletal muscles with
which they are associated
 Descending (Motor) Tracts

The remaining descending tracts include:

Rubrospinal
Anterior reticulospinal
Lateral reticulospinal
Vestibulospinal
Tectospinal
 Descending (Motor) Tracts

The remaining tracts originate in different

subcortical motor nuclei of the brain stem
These tracts were formerly lumped together as
the extrapyramidal tracts
The current term is to label them indirect
pathways or just the names of the individual
pathway
 Descending (Motor) Tracts
Although the cerebellum coordinates
voluntary muscle activity, no motor
efferents descend directly from the
cerebellum to the spinal cord
The cerebellum influences motor
activity by acting through relays on
the motor cortex
 Spinal Cord Trauma
Damage to the spinal cord is associated
with some form of loss of function
Paralysis / loss of function
Paresthesis / sensory loss
Flaccid paralysis / motor loss
Spastic paralysis / upper motor neuron loss
Body regions below lesion
Quadriplegia / spinal cord injury - 4 limbs
Paraplegia / spinal cord injury - 2 limbs
Hemiplegia / brain injury - one side of body
 Developmental Aspects of
CNS
Fetal alcohol syndrome
Cerebral palsy
Anencephaly (without brain)
Spina bifida (forked spine)
 Embryonic Development
The spinal cord
develops from the
caudal portion of the
embryonic neural
tube
By the end of the
6th week each side
of the developing
cord has two
clusters of
neuroblasts that
have migrated
outwarded from the
neural tube
 Embryonic Development
The two clusters
are the dorsal alar
plate and a ventral
basal plate
Alar plate neurons
become
interneurons
The basal plate
neurons become
motor neurons that
sprout axons that
grow out to the
effector organs
 Embryonic Development
Axons that emerge
from alar plate cells
form the external
white matter of the
cord by growing
outward along the
length of the CNS
The alar plates
expand dorsally and
the basal plates
expand vertically to
become the H-
shaped mass of
gray matter
 Embryonic Development
Neural crest cells
that come to lie
alongside the cord
form the dorsal
root ganglia
containing
sensory nerve cell
bodies, which
send their axons
to the dorsal
aspect of the Neuralcrestcells
brain
 Gray Matter and Spinal Roots

The lateral horn neurons are autonomic (sympathetic)

motor neurons that serve the visceral organs
Their axons also leave the cord via the ventral root
 Gray Matter and Spinal Roots

Afferent fibers carrying impulses from

peripheral sensory receptors form the dorsal
roots of the spinal cord
 Gray Matter and Spinal Roots

The cell bodies of the associated sensory

neurons are found in an enlarged region of the
dorsal root called the dorsal root ganglion or
spinal ganglion
 Gray Matter and Spinal Roots

After entering the cord, the axons take a

number of routes
Some enter the posterior white matter of the
cord or brain, others synapse with interneurons
Ascending (Sensory)
Pathways