Lecture I

Antennas & Propagation Antennas
&
Propagation
Mischa Dohler
Kings College London

Centre for Telecommunications Research
Lecture I, 24. Sep. 2001

Antennas & Propagation Overview (entire lecture)
- Introduction to Communication Systems

- Mathematical & Physical Fundamentals
- Fundamentals of Antennas
- Practical Antennas
- Propagation Mechanisms & Modelling
- Wireless Communication Links
- Cellular Concept
Part I
Antennas & Propagation
Introduction

Communication Systems
1. GENERAL
SOURCE SINK
SOURCE SOURCE
CODING DECOD
CHANNEL CHANNEL
CODING DECOD
TRANSMITTER CHANNEL RECEIVER

Tx Rx
NOISE&
INTERF.
2. DETAIL
SOURCE SOURCE CHANNEL Tx CHANNEL Rx CHANNEL SOURCE SINK

CODING CODING DECOD DECOD
- Human Speech
- HiFi / TV
Quality
Delay
- Data

2. DETAIL

The process of efficiently

converting the output of either
analogue or digital source into a
sequence of binary digits is
called:
SOURCE CODING
1. Electromagnetic representation
(current)
2. Quantization/Digitalization
3. Compression
(minimize redundancy)
2. DETAIL

The introduction of controlled

redundancy into a signal to com-
pensate for any sources of noise
and interference is called:
CHANNEL CODING
- repetition (no intelligence)

- other coding (intelligence)
Input k bits Output n bits: k/n code rate

2. DETAIL

The interface which modulates the

digital bit stream onto an
appropriate waveform, capable of
propagating through the
communication channel, is called:
MODULATOR or TRANSMITTER

2. DETAIL

The medium between Tx and Rx

is called:
CHANNEL
Eachofthechannelshasunique
- Wireless featureswithrespecttosignal
- Telephone distortionandnoise.Thuseachis
treatedseparatelyandthe
- Fiber cable
modulationschemesdiffer!

2. DETAIL
SOURCE SOURCE CHANNEL Tx NOISE Rx CHANNEL SOURCE SINK

All processes which degrade the signal

in an additive manner (and which
autocorrelation function is a Dirac
delta) are called:
NOISE
- Thermal noise (Tx, cable, Rx)

- Natural and man-made noise
- Interferences (usually from other man
operated systems)
2. DETAIL

- Performs optimum combining and

processing of the received distorted
wave form.

2. DETAIL

- Using the introduced redundancy it

retrieves the desired information.

2. DETAIL

- Reproduces the original signal from

the source to be delivered to the sink.

3. KINGS

Dr. Marvasti: Information Theory

3. KINGS

Prof. Aghvami: Digital Communication

3. KINGS

Prof. Aghvami: Digital Communication
Mischa: Antennas & Propagation

4. MATHS & PHYSICS

PHYSICS:
- transformation of non-electrical signals into
electromagnetic signals
MATHEMATICS:
- Nyquist sampling theorem
- optimum digitalization laws
- Shannons capacity formula

4. MATHS & PHYSICS

PHYSICS:
- none
MATHEMATICS:
- complete coding theory

4. MATHS & PHYSICS

PHYSICS:
- Maxwells equations (current, decoupling waves, etc)
MATHEMATICS:
- Vector analysis
- Differential equations
- Fourier transformation

4. MATHS & PHYSICS

PHYSICS:
- Maxwells equations (free space, reflection, etc)
MATHEMATICS:
- Probability theory (CLT, distributions, etc)

4. MATHS & PHYSICS
SOURCE SOURCE CHANNEL Tx NOISE Rx CHANNEL SOURCE SINK

PHYSICS:
- Quantum theory
MATHEMATICS:
- Operator theory
- Theory of stochastic processes

Part II
Mathematical
&
Physical Foundations

Antennas & Propagation Overview
- Fourier Transform
- Maxwells Equations
- Wave Equation
- Probability Theory

Antennas & Propagation Fourier Transform
Given a varying signal s(t) in the time-domain, the

spectral components S(f) are obtained as follows:
S ( f ) s(t ) e j 2ft
dt
And vice versa:
s (t ) S ( f ) e j 2ft
df

Mathematicians used to transform a function f(x) to
(a) make certain operations easier
(b) make certain features and properties visible.
There are 3 basic types of transformations of f(x):
(1) Differential Transformation (local): f ( x )

D( x )
x
(2) Functional Transformation (local): F ( x) f 2 ( x)
(3) Integral Transformation (global):
I f ( x )dx
D
I f ( x ) cos( x )dx I f ( x ) g ( x, )dx

D D
Properties of the Integral Transformation
I f ( x ) g ( x, )dx
D
(1) Global: It is global, because it accumulates (integration)

the weighted properties of the function f(x) over
the ENTIRE region of definition of f(x).

0:f(x)has
components
I f ( x ) g ( x, )dx asg(x,w)
=0:f(x)hasno
D
components
asg(x,w)
(2) Resonance: Function g(x,w) is a resonant function, because
the integration with f(x) makes those
components in f(x) visible, which equal or
resemble g(x,w).
Example: g(x)=cos (wx ) and f(x)=cos( w x ) | f(x)=cos( 2w x )
I cos( x ) cos( x )dx 0

D
I cos(2 x ) cos( x )dx 0
D Lecture I, 24. Sep. 2001
I f ( x ) g ( x, )dx
D
(3) Orthogonal: If g(x,w) is orthogonal for different w in the

sense:
g ( x, ) g ( x, )dx 0
D
1 2
then there does exist a UNIQUE inverse

transformation F-1. (Example)
If not, then not unique, yet still useful (Wavelets)

How did Physicists and Engineers use it?
I f ( x ) g ( x, )dx
D
Association: (1) f(x) s(t) with inf < t < +inf
(2) g(x,w) { sin(w*t) , cos(w*t) }

Thus we get:
S1 ( f ) s(t ) sin( 2ft )dt
S2 ( f ) s(t ) cos(2ft )dt
S ( f ) s (t )e j 2ft
dt
Main messages of the Fourier Transformation:
S ( f ) s (t )e j 2ft
dt
(1) For a fixed frequency f the integral tells us how
much of that harmonic is present in the signal s(t).
Spectrogram
f
A
f

(2) Smoothness:
s(t) |S(f)|
Very FT
smooth
t f
s(t) |S(f)|
50Hz FT
smooth
t 50Hz f
s(t) |S(f)|
100Hz FT
steeper
t 100Hz f
(more changes per time!)
(2) Smoothness:
s(t) |S(f)|
50Hz FT
smooth
t + 50Hz f
s(t) |S(f)|
100Hz FT
steeper
t 100Hz f
s(t) |S(f)|
50Hz + 100Hz FT
even
steeper
t 50Hz 100Hz f

(2) Smoothness:
s(t) |S(f)|
FT
smooth
t 50Hz f
s(t) |S(f)|
FT
rocky
t 100Hz f

(2) Smoothness:
s(t) |S(f)|
FT sinc(f)
T=20ms
t 50Hz f
s(t) |S(f)|
FT
T=10ms
t 100Hz f

Filter: What makes spectrum infinite?
s(t) |S(f)|
FT sinc(f)
T=20ms
t 50Hz f
s(t) |S(f)|
IFT
T=20ms
t 50Hz f

Filter: In Telecommunications each user is confined
to a certain spectrum band. Thus, filters have
to be applied to confine the infinite bandwidth
of the rectangular pulse.
filter
s(t) |S(f)|
FT
T=20ms
t 50Hz f
s(t) |S(f)|
IFT
T=20ms
t 50Hz f

The steeper the signal in time and the

more amplitude changes per time a
signal has, the higher are the high
frequency components of the
spectrum.

CAUTION!!!
Do NOT FORGET that the transformation is global!
We summed upon the entire time-domain. Thus, what

happens at certain instances or during a short period of
time is AVERAGED OUT!
s(t) |S(f)|
0 1 0 FT sinc(f)
T=20ms
lly
t 50Hz f
a
ic
ct
s(t) |S(f)|
a
pr
00 11 00
T=10ms FT
theoretically
t 100Hz f

Fourier Transform
Antennas & Propagation Blackboard!
Thus the traditional FT has drawbacks:
It does tell us which frequencies are used,

but not when!
Example: Chirp (what makes spectrum appear infinite?)
Moral: Just use the FT if you are interested, which

(approximate) spectrum the signal
occupies during the entire time of
appearance!

Antennas & Propagation Maxwells Equations
div D div B 0
B D
rot E rot H J
t t
1. Mathematical Basics
2. Physical Basics
3. Physical Experiences
4. Derivations Maxwells Equations
5. Discussion

(1) Mathematical Basics:
- Scalar: Quantity with magnitude only.

- Vector: Quantity with magnitude and direction.
- dot-product: AB = |A||B|cos projection: active passive
= AxBx+ AyBy+ AzBz (scalar)
- vector-prod.: AB = |A||B|sin area: active active
x y z
= Ax Ay Az (vector)
Bx By BZ

- Vector-Field: Region where in each point a vector is defined.

- Scalar-Field: Region where in each point a scalar is defined.
Lets look at the change within a scalar field (Temperature):
(0,0,0)m T(0,0,0) = 10
T (1,1,1) T (0,0,0) 10 K

(1,1,1)m T(1,1,1) = 20 (1,1,1) (0,0,0) m 3 m
The change has a magnitude and a direction, thus is a
vector!
The gradient of a scalar field defines a vector field.

In general: If we have a scalar field , then it defines a

unique gradient field E and vice versa!
x , y , z x , y , z x , y , z
E x y z
x y z
x, y , z x, y , z x, y , z
x y z
x y z
grad
Rule: Working with vector fields, it is ALWAYS easier
to find and operate with the appropriate scalar-
field (potential) and then to differentiate!
(2) Physical Basics:
a) Coulombs Law
F F
Q1 Q2
Q1 Q2
Fk 2
r
r
1 Q1 Q2 permittivity (weakening)
r
4 0 r 2

b) Electric Field (Intensity) E
Force Field
Q1
F 1 Q1
r
Q2 4 0 r 2
Q2
Test charge Q2

c) Electric Flux (Density) D
Roughly speaking, we look for a quantity, which

describes the electric field independent of the
materials but exclusively dependent on the sources.
1 Q1 D 0 E Q1
r D r
4 0 r 2
4r 2
Area
Q1

d) Charge Density
Q

V
Q dQ
lim
V 0 V dV

e) Current I
Q dQ
I
t dt

f) Current Density J
I dI
J
A dA
A

g) Magnetic Flux (Density) B
Field (B)
N S
F
As done with the
electrical field we define
F I LB the magnetic field
F through its force on

B magnetic objects.
IL
g) Magnetic Flux (Density) B
In 1820 Biot and Savart found out:

permeability (strength.)
I
I L 0 I L
B k 2
L
r 4 r 2
0 I L sin

4 r2
0 I r dl
dB 0 f ( I )
4 r2
h) Magnetic Field H
Again, we look for a physical value which is independent of the

materials involved:
B 0 f ( I )
B
H
0
a) Divergence div
div D
We would like to be able to read and understand that formula!
Imagine we have a source, e.g. a spring of water.
We want to find a physical variable and a measure, which somehow

characterises the impact of that source onto its surroundings.

a) Divergence div
What do we know?
Impact Strength (of the source)
(i) Variable What does a water source cause?
a) water pressure (no direction, good for grad)
b) speed v of water (magnitude & direction)

a) Divergence div
(ii) Measure In dependency of the distance from the source,
we want to evaluate the impact of the source.
First Choice
Impact absolute value of the water speed. Reasonable?
Second Choice
Impact difference of the absolute value of the water speed.

a) Divergence div
v (Messenger)
Impact
x (Distance)
Does a wave coming along the y-axis make me move along x or z? NO!
v x
Impact
x
A wave from x & y & z makes me move simultaneously along x,y & z!
v x v y v z
Impact
x y z
a) Divergence div
v x v y v z
Impact
x y z
v x v y v z
Impact
x y z
Impact div v

a) Divergence div
(Messenger)
Impact
Impact Strength (of the source) (Distance)
(Messenger)
(Strength of the source)
(Distance)

a) Divergence div
Strength (of the source) =
Electric Field E
Electric Flux D = Messenger
D x D y D z

x y z
div D
a) Divergence div
What does then mean: div B = 0
How to read that?
1. Lets turn it round: 0 = div B
2. There is nothing, what causes a magnetic field to

diverge. Thus, there do not exist magnetic charges.
Thus there does not exist a source and a
sink of the magnetic field. Thus the magnetic field
lines are ALWAYS closed.

b) Rotation rot (curl)
rot H J
We would like to be able to read and understand that formula, too!
Basically, the same principles as for the divergence apply. The only
differences are that
1. The impact is perpendicular to its cause, thus perpendicular to

the action of the source. (sailing)
2. Since it has a direction, it is a vector.

b) Rotation rot (curl)
J rot H J
H
How to read it?
H z H y H x H z H y H x
J x y z
y z z x x y
c) Comparison div & rot (curl)
D x D y D z
div D
x y z
H z H y H x H z H y H x
rot H x y z
y z z x x y
y
x

d) Nabla Notation

Nabla Vector x y z
x y z

x y z
x y z
D x D y D z
D
x y z
H ...
grad
D div D
H rot H
div D div B 0
D 0 E
B 0 H
B D
rot E rot H J
t t
They seem coupled.

B D
rot E rot H J
t t
THE KEY TO ANY OPERATING ANTENNA
1. You create a time variant current density J
2. This causes a varying magnetic field H
3. This causes a varying electric field E
4. This causes varying magnetic field H

Lecture I

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Lecture I

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Antennas & Propagation Antennas

Kings College London

Lecture I, 24. Sep. 2001

- Introduction to Communication Systems

Lecture I, 24. Sep. 2001

TRANSMITTER CHANNEL RECEIVER

SOURCE SOURCE CHANNEL Tx CHANNEL Rx CHANNEL SOURCE SINK

Lecture I, 24. Sep. 2001

SOURCE SOURCE CHANNEL Tx CHANNEL Rx CHANNEL SOURCE SINK

The process of efficiently

SOURCE SOURCE CHANNEL Tx CHANNEL Rx CHANNEL SOURCE SINK

The introduction of controlled

- repetition (no intelligence)

Input k bits Output n bits: k/n code rate

Lecture I, 24. Sep. 2001

SOURCE SOURCE CHANNEL Tx CHANNEL Rx CHANNEL SOURCE SINK

The interface which modulates the

Lecture I, 24. Sep. 2001

SOURCE SOURCE CHANNEL Tx CHANNEL Rx CHANNEL SOURCE SINK

The medium between Tx and Rx

Lecture I, 24. Sep. 2001

SOURCE SOURCE CHANNEL Tx NOISE Rx CHANNEL SOURCE SINK

All processes which degrade the signal

- Thermal noise (Tx, cable, Rx)

SOURCE SOURCE CHANNEL Tx CHANNEL Rx CHANNEL SOURCE SINK

- Performs optimum combining and

Lecture I, 24. Sep. 2001

SOURCE SOURCE CHANNEL Tx CHANNEL Rx CHANNEL SOURCE SINK

- Using the introduced redundancy it

Lecture I, 24. Sep. 2001

SOURCE SOURCE CHANNEL Tx CHANNEL Rx CHANNEL SOURCE SINK

- Reproduces the original signal from

Lecture I, 24. Sep. 2001

SOURCE SOURCE CHANNEL Tx CHANNEL Rx CHANNEL SOURCE SINK

Dr. Marvasti: Information Theory

Lecture I, 24. Sep. 2001

SOURCE SOURCE CHANNEL Tx CHANNEL Rx CHANNEL SOURCE SINK

Dr. Marvasti: Information Theory

Prof. Aghvami: Digital Communication

Lecture I, 24. Sep. 2001

SOURCE SOURCE CHANNEL Tx CHANNEL Rx CHANNEL SOURCE SINK

Dr. Marvasti: Information Theory

Prof. Aghvami: Digital Communication

Mischa: Antennas & Propagation

Lecture I, 24. Sep. 2001

4. MATHS & PHYSICS

SOURCE SOURCE CHANNEL Tx CHANNEL Rx CHANNEL SOURCE SINK

Lecture I, 24. Sep. 2001

4. MATHS & PHYSICS

SOURCE SOURCE CHANNEL Tx CHANNEL Rx CHANNEL SOURCE SINK

Lecture I, 24. Sep. 2001

4. MATHS & PHYSICS

SOURCE SOURCE CHANNEL Tx CHANNEL Rx CHANNEL SOURCE SINK

Lecture I, 24. Sep. 2001

4. MATHS & PHYSICS

SOURCE SOURCE CHANNEL Tx CHANNEL Rx CHANNEL SOURCE SINK

Lecture I, 24. Sep. 2001

4. MATHS & PHYSICS

SOURCE SOURCE CHANNEL Tx NOISE Rx CHANNEL SOURCE SINK

Lecture I, 24. Sep. 2001

Lecture I, 24. Sep. 2001

Lecture I, 24. Sep. 2001

Given a varying signal s(t) in the time-domain, the

And vice versa:

(2) g(x,w) { sin(wt) , cos(wt) }