Antennas

&
Propagation
Revision Antennas
Propagation
Antennas &
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Mischa Dohler

Kings College London

Centre for Telecommunications Research
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Antennas &
Revision Antennas
Propagation

Review
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Antennas &
Revision Antennas
Propagation

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Mathematical Basics
 Fourier Transform

S ( f ) s(t ) e j 2ft
dt

The steeper the signal in time, the more

Revision Antennas

high frequency components are

Propagation
Antennas &
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required to build such signal.

The FT does tell us which frequencies are

used, but NOT when.
 Vector Analysis
Gradient (grad ): Characterises the changes of a scalar field.

Divergence (div E): Characterises, how much a field diverges.

Rotation (rot H): Characterises, how much a field rotates.

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Nabla Vector x y z
Propagation

x y z
Antennas &
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x y z
x y z
D x D y D z
D
x y z
H ...

grad
D div D H rot H
 Maxwells Equations

div D div B 0
D 0 E
B 0 H
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Propagation

B D
Antennas &
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They seem
rot E coupled. rot H J
t t
rot and div merely characterise the

change in location, yet not in time!

 Maxwells Equations

B D
rot E rot H J
t t
THE KEY TO ANY OPERATING ANTENNA
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Propagation
Antennas &
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Suppose: 1. There does exist an electric medium, which

provides a current I and thus a current density J.
2. This causes location varying magnetic field H

3. This causes location varying magnetic flux B, but no

time varying magnetic flux. Thus no rot E, thus no
time varying electric flux. Thus no wave!
 Maxwells Equations

B D
rot E rot H J
t t
Suppose: 1. There is a time varying current density J.
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2. This causes location and time varying magnetic

Propagation
Antennas &
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field H
3. This causes location and time varying magnetic
flux B.
4. This causes location and time varying electric field E.

5. This causes location and time varying electric flux D.

6. This causes location and time varying magnetic

field H, even if without current density J.
 Antenna Basics

Any accelerated charges produce radiation.

An antenna is an efficient way of converting

guided waves into free space waves.
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Propagation
Antennas &
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Transmission Line

Basic Antenna Structures

Wire Antennas Aperture Antennas

 Mathematical Analysis

Maxwells Equations

Wave Equations in diff. form for A &

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Propagation
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Intuitive
Antennas &

- Greens Function Method

Solution: Retarded Potentials A &

Magnetic & Electric Field

 Mathematical Analysis

B D
div D div B 0 rot E rot H J
t t

1 2
(r , t ) 1 2
A
2 2 2 A 2 2 J (r , t )
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c t 2 c t
Propagation
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Antennas &

1 r' , t | r r' | c J r' , t | r r' | c

r, t dV' A r , t dV'
4 V'
| r r' | 4 V'
| r r' |

A
E B (r , t ) A
t
 Hertzian Dipole

Application to Hertzian Dipole

1
2
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1 1
H I L k sin e
2 jkr

Propagation
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Antennas &

4 jkr jkr

1
jkr
2
1
3

Er I L k cos e
2

2 jkr jkr

1 1
2
1
3

E I L k sin e
2 jkr

4 jkr jkr jkr
 Near and Far Fields
Near Field Approximation Far Field Approximation
Fresnel Region Fraunhofer Region

k r 1 k r 1
I L cos
Er Er 0
j 2kr 3
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Propagation
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Antennas &

I L sin
E E H
j 4kr 3

I L sin I L k sin jkr

H H j e
4r 2 4r
E & H are in quadrature phase, thus E & H are in phase, thus they carry
merely energy storage energy!
 Plane Wave of the far field

H H ,max r sin e j ( kr t )
E H
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H E
Propagation
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Antennas &

=90 y r >>

x
 Polarisation

H E
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Propagation
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Antennas &

z Linear
E
Linear (tilted)
-x
Circular

Elliptical
 Power Density S (Pointing Vector)

Instantaneous Power Density: w ReE H *

in W/m2

Pointing
Averaged Power Density w ReS Re 1 E H*

2 Vector S
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Propagation
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Antennas &

Hertzian Dipole

r 2
1 I 2 L sin 2

Re S Re Er E 0 ReS
2 0 8 r2
0 H*
 Total Power P

Average power through area d: dP w d ReS d

dP ReS d ReS r 2 sin d d

Total average power P radiated is:

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Propagation
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Antennas &

2
P Re S r 2
sin d d
0 0

Hertzian Dipole

2 2 2
I L
2
2 L
P sin d d
3
P I
0 0
8 3
 Radiation Resistance Rr

Radiation Resistance Rr is defined as

the value of a hypothetical resistor which dissipates a

power equal to the power radiated by the antenna when
fed by the same current I.
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Propagation
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Antennas &

1 1 2
UI I Rr P
2 2

Hertzian Dipole

2 2 2
2 L L L
Rr 80 2 789
3
 Antenna Impedance ZA

The Antenna Impedance ZA is defined as

the ratio of the voltage at the feeding point V(0) of the

antenna to the resulting current flowing in the antenna I.
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Propagation

V ( 0)
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Antennas &

ZA
I Antenna
If IAntenna = Imax then ZA impedance referred to the loop current
If IAntenna = I(0) then ZA impedance referred to the base current

Resistance
V ( 0)
ZA RA jX A
I ( 0) Reactance
 Equivalent Circuit
Zg Loss within Antenna

Rg Xg RLoss
RA
V
ZA
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XA
Propagation
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Antennas &

V ( 0)
ZA RA jX A
I ( 0)
Resistance Reactance

Tells us how much power is Tells us how much power is

radiated. reflected. Or how much I and V are

out of phase.
 Antenna conjugate Matching

Vg Vg
I
Z g Z A Rr RLoss Rg j X A X g

Power Pr delivered to antenna for radiation is given by:

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1 2
Propagation
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Pr I Rr
Antennas &

2
Maximum Power Pmax is delivered for conjugate matching:

1 V
2 Rr RLoss Rg
Pr
4 Rr RLoss
X A Xg
 Antenna Parameters

The following definitions are applicable to all antennas:

1. Power Density w = Re{S}

2.Total Radiated Power P 3. Radiation Resistance Rr
4. Antenna Impedance ZA
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5. Equivalent Circuit
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Antennas &

6. Load matching

7. Effective Length le
8. Effective Area Ae

9. Radiation Intensity U 12. Directivity D

10. HPBW / Bandwidth B 13. Radiation Efficiency e

11. Directive Gain g 14. (Power) Gain G

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Antennas &
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Propagation

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Wire Antennas
 Finite Length Dipole

Dipole of finite length

jk
H I 0 e jkr le
4r
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E H
Propagation
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Antennas &

sin
le I ( z ) e jkzcos
dz
I ( 0) L

1 1
I ( z ) I max sin k L z , I max I (0) / sin kL
2 2
L/a > 60 : Halln's Integral Transmission Line
 Halln's Integral Equation

Halln's Integral Equation

Objective:
(1) Current distribution I along a wire
(2) Input impedance
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Proceedings: (Derivation on blackboard!)

Propagation
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Antennas &

(1) Obtain magnetic vector potential A inside a wire due to

driven voltage V.

(2) Obtain magnetic vector potential A outside a wire due

to current I.

(3) Equate the tangential component of both at the surface

of the wire.

(4) Solve the equation to obtain I and Za

 Finite length Dipole

Pattern Factor P

P

cos 1 kL cos cos 1 kL
2 2

sin
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Propagation
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Antennas &

Radiation Power

Radiation Resistance Rr

Directivity D
 Reciprocity

Practical Extensions to Dipole

Folded Dipole Monopole

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Reciprocity Theorem with Consequences

Propagation
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Antennas &

Tx = Rx Antenna Friis Transmission

Formula

Definitions of Impedances

Self Impedance Mutual Impedance

 Mutual Impedance

1
Z 21 E z , 21 z I 2 z dz
I 1 ( 0) I 2 ( 0) L 2

Z 21 R21 j X 12
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Propagation
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Antennas &

Approximated current distribution:

1
I 2 ( z ) I 2,max sin k L2 z
2
Electromagnetic Field in the Near Field:

e jkR1 e jkR2 e jkr

E z , 21 P j 30 I max 2 cos k T
R1 R2 r
 Linear Antenna Array

z
P(r, , )

Revision Antennas
Propagation

y
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Antennas &

1 cos sin cos mixed elevation & azimuth

2 cos pure elevation

 Principle of Pattern Multiplication

Constant (similar to all structures)

1 e jkr
H j sin P0 2 f 1 E H
2 r
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Propagation
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Antennas &

Individual Pattern ARRAY FACTOR

(of 1 antenna element) (different for each Array)

N 1
f 1 I n e jk d n 1

n 0
 Uniform Array
N 1
f 1 I n e jk d n 1 I n 1 e j n

n 0

N 1
f u e
Array
Revision Antennas

j nu
Propagation

u kd 1
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Antennas &

Factor
n 0 kd cos

Maximum (Main Beam) for u = 0 : cos
kd
Broadside Array Endfire Array

90 0 kd 0
 Array Polynomial

N 1
f A0 A1 z AN 1 z PN 1 ( z )
u=/2
Walking along the circle is like
walking around the array
1
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Propagation
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u=0
Antennas &

Nulls on unity circle indicate no

radiation in that particular direction!

f ( z ) z z1 z z 2 z z N 1
x

Feeding Current: A0 e j arg A0 A1 e j arg A1 A2 e j arg A2 A3 e j arg A3 A4 e j arg A4

 VHF TV Receive Antenna

Uda-Yagi Antenna
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Sheet Reflector
Propagation
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Antennas &

Folded Dipole
Driver

Feeding Mast

5-6 Directors
 Helical Antenna

Axial Mode Radiation (endfire) appears if:

3/4 < C/ < 4/3

1. Narrow Mainbeam with minor

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Propagation
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Antennas &

sidelobes
z
2. HPBW 1/(Number of turns)

3. Circular Polarisation
(orientation helix orientation)

y 4. Wide Bandwidth

5. No coupling between elements

x
6. Supergain Endfire Array
Circumference C
 Rumseys Principle

All antenna characteristics so far were always scaled with respect

to . Thus, changing changes the characteristic.

The impedance and pattern properties

Revision Antennas

of an antenna will be frequency

Propagation
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Antennas &

independent if the antenna shape is

specified only in terms of angles and
the antenna itself is infinite.
 Log-periodic toothed Antenna

Effectively infinite current decays fast

Current decays fast introduce discontinuities

Discontinuities destroy self-scaling nature

Self-scaling nature log-periodic toothed antenna

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Propagation
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Log-periodic sheet Log-periodic wire

Antennas &

Characteristic will be repeated at (discrete) nf1.

 Fractal Antenna

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Propagation
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Antennas &
 Wire Antennas

1. Hertzian Dipole

2. Finite Length Dipole

3. Antenna Array

4. Uda-Yagi
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Propagation
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Antennas &

5. Turnstile

6. Loop

7. Helix

8. Quadrifilar Helix

9. Frequency Independent
Antennas
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Antennas &
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Propagation

- III -
Aperture Antennas
 Huygens Principle

Any wavefront can be considered to be the

source of secondary waves that add to produce
distant wavefronts.
z
Revision Antennas

P
Propagation
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Antennas &

r
en
r

J,
y
x

k e jkr'
E j e n Es er' e n Hs er' er' d
4 Surface
r'
 Aperture Plane

To
w
ar
ds
in
fin
Aperture Plane

ity
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Propagation
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Antennas &

- E-field vanishes on the

Hemisphere at infinity.
- Total field is derived from
the knowledge of the field
on the aperture plane.
Closing Hemisphere
 Horn Antennas

TE10

E-Plane H-Plane Pyramidal

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sectoral horn sectoral horn horn

Propagation
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Antennas &

Excitation: TE10 mode

Impedance Matching
through flare

Gradual Transmission with

minimised reflection
 Slot on Waveguide Walls

TE10 mode
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Propagation
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Antennas &

Radiation is maximum at maximal interrupted current

Radiation

No Radiation
 Patch Structure

Feed
Patch
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Propagation
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Antennas &

Substrate

---- ++++ t
r d
++++ ----
 Parabolic Reflector

Parallel and in-phase waves

Parabolic Dish
4
D 2 Ae

Feed
r

4

Revision Antennas

D r 2
Propagation

2
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Antennas &

- Dish has to be 100% parabolic

- Feeder shouldnt block too much

Non-uniform fields due to aperture blocking etc

Ae ap Aph
ap Aperture Efficiency = 80%
 Practical Considerations

- The Quality Factor Q

- Electrically Small Antennas

Revision Antennas
Propagation
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Antennas &

- Physically Small Antennas

- Imperfect Ground

- Feeding