Principles Of Pressure,

Flow, Temperature and

Combustion
Upon completion of this
module you should be able
to:
 Define the terms absolute pressure, atmospheric
pressure, differential pressure, psig, vacuum,
negative pressure, and draft.
In writing, briefly explain the principles of flow and
pressure.
List the factors that affect liquid pressure.
Define the following terms density, specific gravity
and viscosity.
Explain the terms excess air and excess oxygen.
Explain the term fuel-air ratio.
Identify the three Ts of combustion and explain
why they are important to combustion.
Principles of Pressure
Pressure - Force applied over a
surface, measured as force per unit of
area.

Pressure measurements are used

extensively throughout a power plant.
To fully understand pressure and how
it acts on liquids and vapors, we must
look at the principles of pressure.
Properties of Matter
Matter is classified as solid, liquid, or
gas.

Solids have a fixed volume and a fixed

shape.

Liquids have a fixed volume, but no fixed

shape.
Gases have no fixed volume or shape.
Properties of Matter
Almost every substance can be
changed from one form to another
by changing the pressure,
temperature, or both.

Increasing pressure will cause

steam to condense to water without
changing temperature.
Principles of Liquid
Pressure
The pressure of a liquid can be
created in different ways.

In the plant, you will be concerned

with the liquid pressure increases
due to the liquid being passed
through a pump.
Principles of Liquid
Pressure
In a liquid, pressure acts equally
in all directions.

Depth, not volume, is the

determining factor in liquid
pressure.
Density
Water is often used as a reference
liquid in measuring and calculating
liquid pressure. Water is also used
as a reference in comparing the
density of materials.

Density the mass per unit area of

volume.
Density
Water is often used as a reference
liquid in measuring and calculating
liquid pressure. Water is also used
as a reference in comparing the
density of materials.

Density the mass per unit area of

volume.
Specific Gravity
Water has a density of 1000 kilograms
per cubic meter. The density of water
is used as a reference when comparing
other liquids. The difference in density
is referred to as specific gravity.
Specific Gravity is the ratio of the
mass of a solid or liquid to the mass of
an equal volume of distilled water.
Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of water is 1.
Oil may have a specific gravity of
0.50. This means that if you had
an equal amount of oil and water,
the oil would weigh half as much
as the water.
Factors Affecting Liquid
Pressure
Depth

Density

Surface Pressure
Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric Pressure
Gauge, Absolute, and
Differential Pressure
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE AND BOILING
POINT
OF WATER AT VARIOUS HEIGHTS ABOVE

SEA LEVEL
Altitude, feet Pressure, Pressure, Boiling Point
above sea Inches of psia of Water, F
level Mercury

000 29.9 14.7 212

1000 28.9 14.1

2000 27.8 13.6 208

3000 26.8 13.2

4000 25.8 12.6 204

Absolute Pressure
A pressure reading calibrated to
read atmospheric pressure and
the applied pressure is called
absolute pressure. Absolute
pressure is read as pounds per
square inch absolute (psia).
Converting Gauge and
Absolute Pressure
To convert gauge pressure to
absolute pressure, add 14.7 psi.

Example: 100 psig + 14.7 =

114.7 psia
Converting Gauge and
Absolute Pressure
To convert gauge pressure to
absolute pressure, add 14.7 psi.

Example: 100 psig + 14.7 =

114.7 psia
Converting Gauge and
Absolute Pressure
During condenser operation, there is
actually pressure in the condenser.
The pressure in the condenser can be
determined by first calculating the
condenser backpressure. Condenser
backpressure is the difference
between atmospheric pressure and
condenser vacuum, and is measured in
inches of mercury.
Converting Gauge and
Absolute Pressure
Rule of Thumb - for every 1 inch
of mercury backpressure in the
condenser, there is (0.491) psia.
Differential Pressure
Differential pressure is used to measure the
difference in pressure between two known
points. Differential pressures are used to
determine piping size during design, and in
operation to ensure that equipment and
systems are operating properly. The
differential pressure across a strainer or filter
is used as an indication of the cleanliness of
the element. Filters are typically cleaned or
changed when the differential pressure
exceeds a certain value.
Principles of Gas
Pressure
A volume of gas weighs much less
than an equal volume of liquid.
Gas can be expanded or
compressed to fit almost any
volume. Liquids have very minor
expansion or contraction
capabilities.
Gas Pressure and
Volume
Pressure and volume of gas are
very important to each other.

Let us say that we have a volume

of gas at 10 psig in a 1 cubic foot
container.
Gas pressure and
Temperature
Temperature is a direct indication
of the average speed of a group of
moving molecules. As
temperature is increased, the
speed of the molecules increases.
Reduce temperature and the
speed of the moving molecules is
reduced.
Gas pressure and
Temperature
Absolute Zero - the temperature
at which molecules stop moving.
Relationship of
Pressure, Temperature,
and Volume
Holding temperature constant and

reducing volume will increase

pressure.

Holding volume constant and

increasing temperature will
increase pressure.
Principles of Flow
The movement of fluids in power
plants can be compared to the
movement of blood through your
body. Pumps provide the force to
move the fluids and system piping
provides a path for flow. In your body,
the heart provides the force to move
your blood. Arteries and veins
provide a flow path.
Principles of Flow
Fluid flow in the plant is very
complex and has many principles
that govern it. Without fluids of
all types flowing through the
systems, the plant would not run
very long.

Properties of Fluids
Viscosity - A fluids resistance to flow.
As fluids flow through a pipe, the
resistance near the wall is higher than at
the center.
The resistance to slippage is the fluids
viscosity. The higher the resistance a
fluid as, the higher its viscosity will be.
One factor that greatly affects viscosity is
temperature.

Properties of Fluids
Oil is assigned an exact viscosity.
The viscosity rating is determined
by draining 60 cc of oil from a
device called a viscometer and
timing how long it takes.
Fluids in Motion
When fluids are placed in motion,
the results are some special
properties that must be
considered. Fluids in motion have
two distinct patterns, laminar and
turbulent.
Fluids in Motion
Laminar flow is a smooth flow of fluids.
In a pipe, the flow would be layer
upon layer flowing along the pipe. The
layers would look like the growth rings
of a tree. Each ring of fluid would be
moving at a different speed. The inner
layer would flow the fastest, with flow
decreasing in each layer from the
center out. The outer wall is moving
slowest because of friction.
Fluids in Motion
Turbulent flow is very rough and
irregular. Friction is very high due
to eddy currents in the flow.
Definition
Eddy Currents - miniature
whirlpools in flowing fluids caused
by small currents swirling and
weaving in all directions.
Factors Affecting Fluid
Flow
The type of fluid flow in a pipe is
affected by five factors. A change in
the fluids velocity, viscosity,
specific gravity, pipe size, and
smoothness can change the type of
flow inside the pipe. Velocity can be
increased to a point where the flow
changes from laminar to turbulent.
Bernoulli Effect
When fluid velocity is increased, the pressure
on the wall is decreased. Decreasing velocity
will increase pressure. Velocity can be
changed by modifying the piping size. The
inverse relationship between pressure and
flow is referred to as the Bernoulli effect.
One common application of the Bernoulli
effect is the venturi. The venturi works on
the principle of increasing velocity by
decreasing pressure.
Setting Fluids in
Motion
Getting fluids to move requires a
pressure differential or a density
differential. One source of pressure
differential could be a pump. Density
differential could be from a
temperature differential. An example
of a temperature/density differential
would be a natural circulation boiler.
Gravity Feed
Gravity feed is one way to set up
a pressure differential to set fluids
in motion. The fluid in the tank
creates a pressure that is directly
proportional to the height of the
fluid in the tank. This pressure is
called head pressure.
Gravity Feed
Head Pressure is the pressure
of a fluid due to the height of the
fluid above some reference point.
Gravity Feed
This means that if we have a tank of
water 10 feet high, there will be a
certain amount of pressure exerted at
the bottom of the tank. This is due to
the weight of the water inside the
tank. This pressure will be measured
in pounds per square inch (psi).

Gravity Feed
If the height of the tank is known,
divide the height by 2.3. For each
2.3 feet, the pressure exerted will
be 1 psi. Otherwise stated as:

Height/2.3 = psi exerted at bottom

of tank
Gravity Feed
A gravity feed system depends
entirely on the difference in
pressure between the feed line
and the free surface of the fluid.
Forced Flow System
Pumps are used to create a differential
pressure in our fluid systems. Pumps
increase velocity and pressure to move
fluids under all conditions in power
plants. Forced flow systems have
conditions and terminology of which
we must be aware to determine their
proper operation.

Suction Head
Suction head is the distance from
the top of the fluid to the center of
the pump. The suction head is
important when calculating the
capacity of pumps and the amount
of water needed to supply the
pump.
Suction Head
Suction Lift
Suction lift is the distance from
the center of the pump down to
the fluid to be pumped. This is the
distance that the pump must lift
the fluid, which is important when
installing a pump.
Suction Lift
Total Static Head
Total static head is the vertical
distance in feet from the free level
of the source of supply to the free
level of the discard
Velocity Head
Velocity head is the static head minus
the friction loss. Simply stated, think of
a water tank 20 feet high with a water
tap at the bottom and a hose connected
to it. Point the hose straight up and
open the valve. The height that the
water travels straight up is the velocity
head. Due to friction loss, the water will
not rise to the free surface of the tank .
Friction Head
As will all matter, there is a
resistance to movement. The
resistance a fluid has in movement
is the friction head. When the
velocity is increased, the friction is
increased and this results in the
pressure drop of the fluid.
Factors Affecting Flow
Rate
The rate at which a fluid flows in a system
is affected by head, viscosity, and friction.

Head Increasing head is a positive move
for increasing flow rate.
Viscosity The lower the viscosity, the
higher the flow rate.
Friction Deposits and corrosion in pipes
will increase friction.
Principles of
Temperature
Temperature - the degree of heat or
cold of a body or environment.

If two objects are held together, and

each object has a different
temperature, heat will be transferred
from the hotter object to the colder
object. Heat transfer is always from
the hotter object to the colder object.
Heat
Heat is a form of energy. Thermal
energy, or heat, is dependent on
temperature, but temperature is
only a measure of the heat energy.
Heat
Heat is measured in British Thermal
Units (Btu). By adding or removing
Btu quantities to water, we can
change its temperature and state.

Btu - the amount of heat energy

needed to raise the temperature of
1 pound of water 1 F.
Heat
Specific Heat - A ratio of the
amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of a substance
1F, compared to the amount of
heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 pound of water
1F.
Principles of
Combustion
Combustion is accomplished as a
chemical process by mixing fuel
and air at elevated temperatures.
The air supplies oxygen and the
carbon, hydrogen, and other
combustible products in the fuel
combine to produce heat.
Principles of
Combustion
Different fuels require different
amounts of air in the combustion
process.

Since the combustion process is not

perfect, it is necessary to provide
excess air for complete and efficient
burning of the fuel used.
Principles of
Combustion
Complete combustion requires more
than just the right amount of excess
air. The fuel and air must be
thoroughly mixed so that each fuel
particle has sufficient air for
complete combustion. This is
performed with a good burner
design and correct damper settings.
Principles of
Combustion
Poor combustion must also be
considered from an environmental
standpoint.

The factors above are sometimes

referred to as the Three Ts of
combustion: time, temperature,
and turbulence.
Combustion Air
Fans provide a number of services,
but none are as important as the
forced draft FD fans. FD fans
provide the needed air to burn
fuel. FD fans also provide excess
air so that we have excess oxygen
in the boiler gas.
Combustion Air
When the fuel is burned we have by-
products of combustion which are:
carbon dioxide (CO2), steam (H2O),
sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen (N2) and
oxygen (excess O2). As stated earlier,
the nitrogen and oxygen will not burn.
By monitoring O2 leaving the boiler, we
have assured ourselves of complete
combustion without large stack losses.
Combustion Air
EXCESS OXYGEN is the oxygen
left in the gases after the fuel is
burned.

EXCESS AIR is the amount of air

above what is necessary to achieve
complete combustion of a fuel.
Fuel
Fossil fuels contain the basic elements
of hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur,
and carbon. The elements that burn
are hydrogen, carbon, and sulfur, with
sulfur being the least desirable
element. Sulfur forms SO2, which can
erode tubes and pollute the air. Coal,
depending on the type used, has a
large residual after it is burned.
Fuel
Oil and gas have little or no residual
after complete combustion, so this
makes them a desirable fuel source.
Due to cost and availability, oil and
gas are not the primary fuel used by
the majority of power plants. Coal
is the most used source of fuel for
power plants due to its abundance.
Fuel
Typically, the heating value of the fuel
is determined by periodic sampling
and analysis. These analyses have
shown that the average heating value
of natural gas is 1000 Btu/ft 3 (21,000
Btu/lb), for heavy fuel oil it is 150,000
Btu/gal (18,520 Btu/lb), and 9170
Btu/lb for moisture-free pine bark.
Fuel-Air Ratio
Maintaining the proper fuel-air
ratio is vital to the operation of the
boiler. Fuel-air ratio is important
for the combustion of the fuel.
Fuel-Air Ratio
Air and fuel must be balanced
properly to prevent unburned fuel
from accumulating in the boiler, and
keep stack gas losses at a minimum.
If the fuel-air ratio is incorrect, flame
stability may be difficult to maintain.
Improper fuel-air ratio will create
slagging problems and reduce unit
efficiency.