CHI-SQUARE

AND
ODDS
RATIOS
 Semester Recap
Weve covered:
Descriptive Statistics Statistical Concepts
Measures of Central Tendency Statistical
Measures of Variability Significance
Z-scores and Graphing Type I and Type II
Association and Prediction Error
Correlation Alpha and p-values
Regression (simple and Beta and power
multiple) Effect Sizes
Testing for Group Differences
t-tests (one, indep., and paired)
ANOVA (One-way, factorial,
ANCOVA, RM ANOVA
Last weeks
All of the statistical tests on the prior slide are
known as parametric statistics
Parametric Statistics have strict assumptions that
must be met before a t-test, correlation, etc can
be used
Assumes homoscedasticity of variance (variance
between two variables are similar)
Assumes a normal distribution (bell-shaped curve)

These assumptions are not easily met

Forexample, weve used physical activity in several of
our examples this semester physical activity is
RARELY normally distributed
Nationally Representative Sample of
Minutes of Daily Physical Activity

Is this a normal distribution?

What kind is it?

Positive Skew

PA
Additionally
Sometimes you need to use a dependent
variable that is categorical (grouping)
Recall from the chart that the statistical tests weve
discussed all require 1 continuous dependent
variables
Example Research Question:
Are there more male than female athletic trainers across
the United States?
I want to know if there are more men than women this
is a nominal dependent variable
No correlation, regression, or ANOVA, etc will
help me answer this simple question
 Non-Parametric Tests
Non-parametric tests can be used when:
Parametric tests statistical assumptions are not met
Categorical DVs are used

Non-parametric statistics is an entirely different line

of statistics that includes dozens of new tests
Usually a parametric test has a non-parametric relative
Chi-Square Test of Independence is similar to Pearson
Correlation
Most of the time if you cant meet the assumptions of the
parametric test you wanted to do you can find an appropriate
non-parametric test
 Non-Parametric Tests (cont)
Non-parametric tests have benefits and
drawbacks like all statistical tests
Benefits:
Assumptions are easier to meet
Non-parametric tests basically just need nominal or ordinal data
Remember that interval or ratio data scales can always be
converted to nominal or ordinal the inverse is not true
More robust
Non-parametric statistics are more versatile tests
Recall small changes in our data required completely different
parametric tests (e.g., the difference between a t-test and
ANOVA)
Usually easier to calculate
We can realistically hand-calculate several non-parametric tests
 Non-Parametric Tests (cont)
Non-parametric tests have benefits and
drawbacks like all statistical tests
Drawbacks:
Less mainstream
Non-parametric tests are commonly used but far less
frequently than parametric tests
Less powerful
By design, non-parametric tests have less statistical
power
Whats that mean?
Unless you NEED to use a categorical dependent
variable, if your data meets the statistical assumptions
you should use parametric stats
Tonight
We will discuss and use two non-parametric tests:
Chi-square test of independence
Logistic Regression (Odds Ratio)

These are the most common non-parametric tests

Both are related to each other (often used together)
Do NOT require normal distribution or
homoscedasticity
Do require 2 categorical variables (nominal or ordinal)
 Chi-Square, 2
There are actually a few different types of Chi-
Square tests, we will discuss the Chi-Square test of
independence
Test determines if two variables are related (or
unrelated)
Testof independence
Similar to Pearson correlation
For example, we would expect
Sex (Male/Female) is NOT related to hair color (dark/light)
Men and women are just as likely to have dark or light hair

Sex (Male/Female) is related to having a heart attack (Yes/No)

Men have more heart attacks than women do

For these tests, start thinking about data in 2x2 tables

 Chi-Square Data Picture
Heart Attack?
Cause of Death
in Men and
Women Yes No

Men 68 32
Sex

Women 42
A 2x2 table provides a nice summary of the data
58
In this example, Sex is the IV and Heart Attack is the DV
Does male/female increase risk of heart attack?
This table provides frequency of occurrence
Can also convert to percentage you will get the same result
 SPSS View
Data Structure:
Key variables are
categorical
Can look at the data labels
or values:
Males =1
Females = 2
HeartAttack Yes = 1
HeartAttack No = 2

Look at Labels and Values:

 SPSS View
Data Structure:
Key variables are
categorical
Can look at the data
labels or values:
Males =1
Females = 2
HeartAttack Yes = 1
HeartAttack No = 2
 Chi-Square Data Picture
Heart Attack?
Cause of Death
in Men and
Women Yes No

Men 68 32
Sex
Women 42 58

You should fill out the margins of the table (how many
men, women, total n, heart attacks, other causes, etc
Do on board
 How the Chi-Square works
Heart Attack?
Cause of Death
in Men and
Women Yes No

Men 68 32
Sex
Women 42 58
The 2 test has a null hypothesis that there is no difference in
the frequency of men/women having heart attacks
If the two variables are unrelated (independent), we would expect
men and women to have the about same number
But, we need a statistical test to know if this difference is RSE
How to run
Chi-Square
 It is CRITICAL you put the variables in the
correct spots Then click on
Typically the IV goes in the Rowstatistics
And DV goes in the Column

It doesnt really
change the
answer but it
makes it easier
for you to
understand the
results
What else is there?
The cells tab will allow
you to request
percentages in each cell,
to go along with the
frequencies
The format tab will allow
you to change the
organization of your table
E.g., put Females on the
top row, or put No Heart
Attack in the left column
SPSS Output
SPSS provides two initial tables:
1) Case Processing Summary: Ignore,
repeat info of
2) CrossTabs Table (our 2x2):
= Frequency. Could have asked for
Percentages
Chi-Square Tests
We only care about the Pearson Chi-Square
yeah, its that same guy from correlation
Important info is the 2 = 13.657, df, p, and n

2 = 13.66 is just like the t-statistic or r, or F ratio...

Chi-Square df
df is calculated by (number of columns
1) multiplied by (number of rows 1)
2 rows 1 = 1
2 columns 1 = 1
1 x 1 = 1 df
All 2x2 tables have 1 df, more variables will
change this
Reporting the results:
A chi-square test of independence was
used compare the frequency of heart
attacks between men and women. Sex
was significantly related to having a
heart attack. Men tended to have more
heart attacks than women (2(1) =
13.66, p < 0.001).
Questions on Chi-Square?
Logistic Regression
Researchers do often report just the Chi-Square
test results. However, it is also common for them
to incorporate logistic regression/or odds ratios
Quick definition of Logistic Regression:
Type of regression equation that uses a categorical
DV
Such as heart attack yes/no from our example
It allows you to include any type of IV (categorical or
continuous) and any number of IVs
In
this sense, it is very similar to simple or multiple linear
reg.
Instead of providing you with a slope it provides an
odds ratio for each IV
 What are the odds?
Odds
The probability of an event happening divided
by the probability of the event not happening
Students often get confused here
A die has 6 sizes, each with a difference number
On one die, the odds of rolling a 1 is?
1 side has a 1 on it, 5 sides do NOT
Odds of rolling a 1:
1/5, or 20%
Whats an odds ratio?
Odds Ratio
The odds of an event happening in one group divided
by the odds of an event happening in another group
It is literally the ratio of two odds

It acts like effect size for a chi-square

The chi-square tells you if there is a difference the odds
ratio tells you how big/strong that difference is
If the chi-square is significant the odds ratio is also
statistically significant
Literal interpretation is how much more likely an event
is to happen in one group versus another
Its easier to see in our example
Back to our example
What are the odds of a heart attack in
men?
68/32, or 2.125
What are the odds of a heart attack in
women? Heart Attack?
Causeorof0.724
42/58, Death
in Men and
Women Yes No

Men 68 32
Sex
Women 42 58
Back to our example
What is the ratio of these odds, or odds
ratio?
2.125 / 0.724 = 2.9 = OR
Interpretation:
Men are 2.9 times more likely to have a
heart attack than women
Heart(weAttack?
know its
significant
Cause of because
Death of the 2)
in Men and
Women Yes No

Men 68 32
Sex
 More on odds ratios
Interpreting odds ratios can trip up some students:
For example, 2.9 is the odds ratio for men vs. women
Men are 3 times more likely than women
Being a man is a risk factor for heart attack

What is the odds ratio for women vs. men?

0.724 / 2.125 = 0.34
Women are one-third as likely to have a heart attack than men
Being a woman is protective of a heart attack

Odds Ratios:
> 1.0 indicate an increased risk
< 1.0 indicate a decreased risk
= 1.0 indicate the SAME risk
Another Example: Lung
Cancer
Lung Cancer?
Cause of Death
in Men and
Women Yes No

Men 6 64
Sex
Women 16 201
First, notice that way more women had lung cancer
But there are way more women in this sample
Ill run a chi-square in SPSS to see if there is a
difference
Lung Cancer Chi-Square
results
2 = 2.451, df = 1, p = 0.456, n = 287
Is there a difference in the frequency of
lung cancer between men and women?

A chi-square test revealed that there was

no significant difference in the odds of
lung cancer between men and women
(2 (1) = 2.451, p = 0.456).
Lets calculate the odds ratio
Odds Ratio: Lung Cancer
What are the odds of cancer in men?
6/64 = 0.094
Odds Ratio = 0.094 / 0.079 =
In women? 1.19
16/201 = 0.079 It appears men might be
What is the OR? slightly more likely than
women, but this could be due
to RSE
Lung Cancer?
Cause of Death
in Men and
Women Yes No

Men 6 64
Sex
More on Odds Ratios
1) Take care in setting up your 2x2 table this
can make it really easy to calculate the odds
and understand your chi-square or really hard

2) As you can see we are hand-calculating an

odds ratio. You can get SPSS to do this for
you.
If you have only 1 IV (like these example), its
called Risk in the CrossTabs option
Like simple linear regression
New Heart Attack Output
When you do this, ignore the bottom
rows of the box (they are more confusing
than helpful)
You get the OR and the 95% CI
This is the same result we got from hand
calculating it, and we knew it was
significant because of the chi-square test
95% CIs and Odds Ratios
Is this odds ratio statistically significant?

How can you tell?

More on Odds Ratios
2) As you can see we are hand-
calculating an odds ratio. You can get
SPSS to do this for you.
With 1 IV, use crosstabs
With multiple IVs, use logistic regression
 I wont ask you to do this but you should know its there
More on Odds Ratios
2) As you can see we are hand-calculating an
odds ratio. You can get SPSS to do this for you.
With 1 IV, use crosstabs
With multiple IVs, use logistic regression
3) Odds Ratios can be tricky without the 2x2
table
They tell you how much more likely something is to
happen for a certain group (like males vs females)
But, you should always include the information in the
2x2 table so people know what youre talking about
Example
Odds of Winning the
Powerball
Odds of winning the Powerball lotto with 1 ticket:
1 / 175,223,510 = 0.00000000571
Odds of winning the Powerball with 10 tickets:
10/175,223,510 = 0.0000000571
Odds Ratio = 10.0
You are 10 times as likely to win with 10 tickets!!!!!
Still better odds to die driving to buy your ticket or
getting hit by lightning than winning with 10 tickets.
Odds Ratios are great statistics but should not
be used to model VERY, VERY rare things
 Referent Group
4) Odds ratios are a ratio between two groups
The odds ratio was 2.9 or 0.34 for our heart attack example
depending on which group was the referent
Referent Group = The baseline group in the odds ratio.
The group that is in the denominator.
2.125 / 0.724 = 2.9
Women were the referent group meaning men were 2.9 times
more likely than women
Must mention this when talking about your odds ratio you cant
just say, the odds ratio was 2.9.
WHO was 2.9 times more likely than WHO?

This is especially important when using them for more than

2 groups
Example with multiple
groups

Odds ratios from a current study Im working on

Shows compares the odds of obesity in children
meeting recommendations for PA, screen time,
sleep
Notice that WHO I choose to be the referent
group influences all of the odds ratios
QUESTIONS ON CHI-
SQUARE?
ODDS RATIOS?
Upcoming
In-class activity
Homework:
Cronk Read Section 7.2 on Chi-Square of
Independence
Holcomb Exercises 55, 56, 57 and 59
Exercises 55-57 are on Chi-Square, 59 is on Odds
Ratio