Covalent Bonds

Often found between two nonmetals.

Typical of molecular species.
Atoms bonded together to form molecules.
Strong attraction.
Atoms share pairs of electrons to attain
octets.
Molecules generally weakly attracted to each
other.
Observed physical properties of molecular
substance due to these attractions.

1
Why do atoms bond? (cont.)

Atoms in non-ionic compounds share

electrons.
The chemical bond that results from sharing
electrons is a covalent bond.
A molecule is formed when two or more
atoms bond.
 Using Lewis Atomic Structures to Predict
Bonding Between Nonmetal Atoms
Nonmetal atoms often bond to achieve an octet
of valence electrons by sharing electrons.
Though there are many exceptions to the Octet rule.
In Lewis theory, atoms share electrons to
complete their octet.
This may involve sharing electrons with multiple
atoms or sharing multiple pairs of electrons with
the same atom.

3
Single Covalent Bonds

When only one pair of electrons is shared,

the result is a single covalent bond.
Two hydrogen atoms forming a hydrogen
molecule with a single covalent bond,
resulting in an electron configuration like
helium.
 Single Covalent Bonds
Two atoms share one pair of electrons.
2 electrons.
One atom may have more than one single bond.

F F H O H

F F H

O H

F F
5
Single Covalent Bonds (cont.)

Atoms in group VI can share two electrons

and form two covalent bonds.
Water is formed from one oxygen with two
hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to it .
Multiple Covalent Bonds

Double bonds form when two pairs of

electrons are shared between two atoms.

Triple bonds form when three pairs of

electrons are shared between two atoms.
 Bonding and Lone Pair
Electrons
Electrons that are shared by atoms are
called bonding pairs.
Electrons that are not shared by atoms
but belong to a particular atom are
called lone pairs.
Also known as nonbonding pairs.

Bonding pairs O
S O
Lone pairs


8
 Polyatomic Ions
The polyatomic ions are attracted to
opposite ions by ionic bonds.
Form crystal lattices.
Atoms in the polyatomic ion are held
together by covalent bonds.

9
 Multiplicity and Bond
Properties
The more electrons two atoms share, the stronger
they are bonded together.
This explains the observation that triple bonds are
stronger than similar double bonds, which are
stronger than single bonds.
CN is stronger than C=N, C=N is stronger than CN.
This explains the observation that triple bonds are
shorter than similar double bonds, which are shorter
than single bonds.
CN is shorter than C=N, C=N is shorter than CN

10
Trends in Bond Length and
Energy
Bond Length Energy
(pm) (kJ/mol)
C-C 154 346
C=C 134 602
CC 120 835
C-N 147 305
C=N 128 615
CN 116 887
C-O 143 358
C=O 123 799
Naming Binary Molecular Compounds
The first element is always named first
using the entire element name.
The second element is named using its root
and adding the suffix ide.
Naming Binary Molecular Compounds (cont.)

Prefixes are used to indicate the number of

atoms of each element in a compound.
Naming Binary Molecular Compounds (cont.)

Many compounds were discovered and

given common names long before the
present naming system was developed
(water, ammonia, hydrazine, nitric oxide).
Naming Acids

The first word has the prefix hydro-

followed by the root of the element plus the
suffix ic.
The second word is always acid (hydrochloric
acid is HCl in water).
Naming Acids (cont.)

An oxyacid is an acid that contains both a

hydrogen atom and an oxyanion.
Identify the oxyanion present.
The first word is the root of the oxyanion and
the prefix per- or hypo- if it is part of the
name, plus the suffix -ic if the anion ends in
-ate or -ous if the oxyanion ends in -ite.
Naming Acids (cont.)

The second word is always acid.

Naming Acids (cont.)

An acid, whether a binary acid or an

oxyacid, can have a common name in
addition to its compound name.
Naming Acids (cont.)

The name of a molecular compound

reveals its composition and is important in
communicating the nature of the
compound.
Naming Acids (cont.)
Molecular Structures (cont.)

Structural formulas show the relative

positions of atoms within a molecule.

structural formula
resonance
coordinate covalent bond
Structural Formulas

A structural formula uses letter symbols

and bonds to show relative positions of
atoms.
 Lewis Formulas of Molecules
Shows patterns of valence electron
distribution in the molecules.
Allows us to predict shapes of molecules.
Allows us to predict properties of molecules
and how they will interact together.

24
 Lewis Structures
Some common bonding patterns.
C = 4 bonds & 0 lone pairs.
4 bonds = 4 single, or 2 double, or single +
triple, or 2 single + double.
N = 3 bonds & 1 lone pair.
O = 2 bonds & 2 lone pairs.
H and halogen = 1 bond.
Be = 2 bonds & 0 lone pairs.
B = 3 bonds & 0 lone pairs.

B C N O F
25
 Writing Lewis Structures
for Covalent Molecules
1. Attach the atoms together in a skeletal
structure.
Most metallic element is generally central.
In PCl3, the P is central because it is further left on the
periodic table and therefore
more metallic.
Halogens and hydrogen: Cl are: generally terminal.
In C2Cl4, the Cs are attached together in the center and the

Cls are surrounding them.

Many molecules : Cl tend

Pto Cl :
be symmetrical.

Though there are

many exceptions
to this, chemical : Cl :
formulas are often written to indicate the order
of atom
attachment. : Cl C C Cl :
In C2Cl4, there are two Cls on each C.
Inoxyacids, the acid hydrogens are attached : Cl to: an
oxygen.
In H2SO4, the S is central, the Os are attached to the S, and
26
each H is attached to a different O.
 Writing Lewis Structures
for Covalent Molecules, Continued
2. Calculate the total number of valence electrons
available for bonding.
Use group number of periodic table to find number of
valence electrons for each atom.
If you have a cation, subtract 1 electron for each +
charge.
IfInyou
PCl3have
, P hasan5 anion, add Cl
e and each 1 electron foraeach
has 7 e for 26 e.
total of
charge.
In ClO3 , Cl has 7 e and each O has 6 e for a total of 25 e.
Add 1 e for the negative charge to get a grand total of 26 e

27
There are steps to apply when working with VSEPR
models:
Step 1: Draw a basic skeleton keeping the
North, South, East, and West positions of the atomic
symbol in mind.
Step 2: Count the number of valence electrons.
Step 3: Place the electrons on the OUTSIDE first.
Step 4: Remaining electrons go on the central
atom.
Step 5: Check for the Octet
Step 6: Check for Resonances Structures
Step 7: Predict electron pair shape name, the
molecular shape name and bond angles.
TURN TO Lewis Structures in your Lab Manual
28
 Example HNO3
1. Write skeletal structure. O
Since this is an oxyacid, H
on outside attached to one
of the Os; N is central. H O N O

2. Count valence electrons. N=5

H=1
O3 = 36 = 18
Total = 24 e-
29
 Example HNO3 , Continued
3. Attach atoms with pairs of O
electrons and subtract
from the total. H O N O

N=5 Electrons
H=1 Start 24
O3 = 36 = 18 Used 8
Total = 24 e- Left 16

30
 Example HNO3 , Continued
4. Complete octets, outside-in.
H is already complete with 2. :
O :
1 bond.
Keep going until all atoms H O N O :

have an octet or you run out
of electrons.
N=5 Electrons Electrons
H=1 Start 24 Start 16
O3 = 36 = 18 Used 8 Used 16
Total = 24 e- Left 16 Left 0
31
 Example HNO3 , Continued

5. If central atom does not have
octet, bring in electron pairs :O :
from outside atoms to share.

Follow common bonding patterns H O N O :

if possible.

:
O :
|
H O N O:

32
Writing Lewis Structures for Polyatomic
Ions
Atoms within a polyatomic ion are
covalently bonded.
The procedure is the same, the only difference is
in counting the valence electrons.
For polyatomic cations, take away one electron
from the total for each positive charge.
For polyatomic anions, add one electron to the
total for each negative charge.

33
 Example NO3

1. Write skeletal structure. O

N is central because it is
the most metallic.
O N O
2. Count valence electrons. N=5
O3 = 36 = 18
(-) = 1
Total = 24 e-
34
 Example NO3 , Continued

3. Attach atoms with pairs of O

electrons and subtract from
the total.
O N O

N=5 Electrons
O3 = 36 = 18 Start 24
(-) = 1 Used 6
Total = 24 e- Left 18

35
 Example NO3 , Continued

3. Complete octets, outside-in.

Keep going until all atoms :
O :
have an octet or you run out of

electrons.
: O N O :

N=5 Electrons Electrons

O3 = 36 = 18 Start 24 Start 18
(-) = 1 Used 6 Used 18
Total = 24 e- Left 18 Left 0

36
 Example NO3 , Continued

5. If central atom does not have
octet, bring in electron pairs
:
O :
from outside atoms to share.

Follow common bonding patterns

: O N O :
if possible.

O: :
|
: O N O:

37
 PracticeLewis Structures
NClO H3PO4

H3BO3 SO3-2

NO2-1 P2H4

38
 PracticeLewis Structures,
Continued
O
NClO H3PO4

H O P O H
O 32 e
Cl
-
18 e- N O
H

H3BO3
SO3-2 O
O H

24 e- 26 e- O
H O B O H S O

NO2-1 P2H4 H H

18 e- O N O

14 e- H P P H

39
 Exceptions to the Octet Rule
H and Li, lose one electron to form cation.
Li now has electron configuration like He.
H can also share or gain one electron to have
configuration like He.
Be shares two electrons to form two single bonds.
B shares three electrons to form three single bonds.
Expanded octets for elements in Period 3 or below.
Using empty valence d orbitals.
Some molecules have odd numbers of electrons.
NO

:NO: 40
 Practice - Lewis Structures
CO2 H3PO4

SeOF2 SO3-2

NO2-1 P2H4
 Practice - Lewis Structures

O
CO2 H3PO4
16 e-
H O P O H
:

:
:O::C::O: 32 e -
O

H

SeOF2 O SO3-2 O

26 e- 26 e-
F O O
Se F S

NO2-1 P2H4 H H

18 e- O N O

14 e- H P P H

 Formal Charge
during bonding, atoms may wind up with more
or less electrons in order to fulfill octets - this
results in atoms having a formal charge
FC = valence e- - nonbonding e- - bonding e-
left O FC = 6 - 4 - (4) = 0
S FC = 6 - 2 - (6) = +1
right O FC = 6 - 6 - (2) = -1 O S O

sum of all the formal charges in a molecule = 0
in an ion, total equals the charge
 Writing Lewis Formulas of
Molecules (contd)

7) Assign formal charges to the atoms

a) formal charge = valence e- - lone pair e- -
bonding e-

b) follow the common bonding patterns
H O

0 +1 -1 | ||
O S O
H C C O H
|

H all 0
Common Bonding Patterns
B C N O F

+ + + +
C N O F

- - - - -
B C N O F
 Practice - Assign Formal Charges

O

CO2 H3PO4
H O P O H

O H



SeOF2 O SO3-2 O


F O O
Se F

S

NO2-1 P2H4 H H

O N O
H P P H

 Practice - Assign Formal Charges
-1
O

CO2 H3PO4
P = +1 H O

P O

H
all 0
rest 0 O H


-1 -1
SeOF2 O SO3-2 O

Se = +1 S = +1 -1 -1
F O O
Se F

S

NO2-1 P2H4 H H
-1
O N O all 0
H P P H

Resonance Structures
Resonance is a condition that occurs when
more than one valid Lewis structure can be
written for a molecule or ion.
This figure shows
three correct ways to
draw the structure for
(NO3)-.
 Rules of Resonance Structures
Resonance structures must have the same
connectivity
only electron positions can change
Resonance structures must have the same number of
electrons
Second row elements have a maximum of 8 electrons
bonding and nonbonding
third row can have expanded octet
Formal charges must total same
Better structures have fewer formal charges
Better structures have smaller formal charges
Better structures have formal charge on more
electronegative atom
 Drawing Resonance
1.
Structures
draw first Lewis structure that

2.
maximizes octets
assign formal charges

O
-1

3. move electron pairs from atoms

with (-) formal charge toward
O O
-1

atoms with (+) formal charge

N
+1

4. if (+) fc atom 2nd row, only move
in electrons if you can move out
electron pairs from multiple -1
O
bond
5. if (+) fc atom 3rd row or below,
keep bringing in electron pairs to
-1

O N
+1
O
reduce the formal charge, even if
get expanded octet.

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecul 50
ar Approach
 PracticeDraw Lewis Resonance
Structures for CNO
(C Is Central with N and O Attached),
Continued

C=4
N=5
O=6
(-) = 1 N C O N C O

Total = 16 e-

51
 Drawing Resonance
1. Structures
draw first Lewis structure that
-1
maximizes octets O
2.
3.
assign formal charges
move electron pairs from atoms H
O S
+2 O H
with (-) formal charge toward
atoms with (+) formal charge -1 O
4. if (+) fc atom 2nd row, only move
in electrons if you can move out
electron pairs from multiple bond O 0
5. if (+) fc atom 3rd row or below,
keep bringing in electron pairs to
reduce the formal charge, even if H
O S 0 O H
get expanded octet.
O 0

 Practice - Identify Structures with Better
or Equal Resonance Forms and Draw
Them -1

O
CO2 H3PO4
P = +1 H O

P O

H
all 0
O H


-1 -1
SeOF2 O SO3-2 O

Se = +1 S = +1 -1 -1
F O O
Se F

S

NO2-1 P2H4 H H
-1
O N O all 0
H P P H

 Practice - Identify Structures with Better
or Equal Resonance Forms and Draw
Them
CO2 -1
H3PO4
O O all 0

none H O
+1
P O

H H O

P O

H
O H O H

SeOF2 SO3-2
O

O

O


O -1 O O

O O

O O

O
all 0 S



S


S


F Se F F
Se F S=0

+1 O
in all

O S O res. forms
NO2-1 P2H4

-1 -1
H H
O N O O N O

H P P H none

Exceptions to the Octet Rule

Some molecules do not obey the octet rule.

A small group of molecules might have an
odd number of valence electrons.
NO2 has five valence electrons from nitrogen
and 12 from oxygen and cannot form an
exact number of electron pairs.
Exceptions to the Octet Rule (cont.)

A few compounds form stable

configurations with less than 8 electrons
around the atoma suboctet.
A coordinate covalent bond forms when
one atom donates both of the electrons to be
shared with an atom or ion that needs two
electrons.
Exceptions to the Octet Rule (cont.)

A third group of compounds has central

atoms with more than eight valence
electrons, called an expanded octet.
Elements in period 3 or higher have a
d-orbital and can form more than four
covalent bonds.