Unit Operations 1

FLUID-PARTICLE Properties of solids

SEPARATIONS Shape, size and size distribution
Measuring particle size
Separating by gravity alone
Separating by elutriation
The Galileo number
EXAMPLE

1
 Unit Operations 1
Particle
Characteristics
PRE-REQUISITES:
pipe flow from INTRODUCTION TO THERMO-FLUIDS
APPLICATION OF KNOWLEDGE
physical separation methods
(e.g. filtration, sedimentation)
pneumatic conveying of solids
behaviour of particle beds
(e.g. reactor design)
particle describes solids: boulders dust
 Unit Operations 1
Particle
Characteristics
particles characterised by several properties:
COMPOSITION TEXTURE SIZE
SIZE DISTRIBUTION SHAPE SURFACE AREA
COMPOSITION
density & electrical conductivity depend on composition
with minerals, separation often by density alone
(e.g. metal ores)
TEXTURE
hard (sand, silicon carbide)
soft (talcum powder, cocoa beans)
 Unit Operations 1
Particle
Characteristics
REGULAR (lead shot, Smarties, pills)
controlled, due to shaping process
SEMI-REGULAR (wheat grain, crystals)
uncontrolled, due to crystal habit or other natural tendency
IRREGULAR (pulverised coal)
uncontrolled, typical of communition products
All calculations for particles in this module assume spherical
shape (rarely true).
 Unit Operations 1
Particle Size
Distribution 100 mm coal, rock
10 mm catalyst pellets, sugar
1 mm sand, tea, sugar
100 m pulverised fuel
10 m flour, instant coffee
1 m Coffee Mate
0.1 m paint particles
0.01 m molecules
0.001 m germs & viruses
PM10 and PM2.5 solids deemed to be hazards to
respiratory health
MONOSIZED particles are uncommon (e.g. sugar, salt)
 Unit Operations 1
Particle Size
Distribution
SIZE FREQUENCY
Hard to read how much of sample CUMULATIVE WEIGHT
is below/above a given size

% by weight % by weight

Easy to read how much

of sample is below/above
a given size
diameter diameter
 Unit Operations 1
Particle Size
Distribution
Most obvious method of sizing is SIEVE
AKA screens
lab-scale: to find size distribution
Screens also used on industrial scale to isolate non-spec
product
sieving difficult in 36 to 100m range due to agglomeration
other methods if particle is too small for sieve
 Unit Operations 1
Particle Size
Distribution: Sieve
lab sieves:
circular, wire weave mesh, different
sizes stacked vertically
Method
sieves are weighed
sieves are stacked in ascending
aperture size
known mass of sample put on top
sieve (all should pass)
process for given time (~ 20 min)
re-weigh each sieve
 Unit Operations 1
Particle Size
Distribution: Sieve

from material weight on each sieve, tabulate data:

SIZE WEIGHT d x xCUM x/d
d0 0
d1 w1 (d1+d0)/2 w1/w
d2 w2 (d2+d1)/2 w2/w
dn wn (dn+dn-1)/2 wn/w
w
 Unit Operations 1
Particle Fluid
Separations
Use a fluid to separate out our feed
Particles settle in fluid due to difference in density
Particle could be a solid or another fluid droplet
Archimedes effect:
if particle is denser than bulk fluid, it sinks
if particle is less dense than bulk fluid, it floats to top
Use a fluid to separate solids
 Unit Operations 1
Particle Fluid
Separations
Most useful (ie. cheap, unreactive, plentiful) fluid is water
But solid would need < 1000 kg m3 to float
Most solids are denser than this
Solution: use aqueous solutions or fine suspensions to
give higher fluid density
EXAMPLE
Separate quartz (2650 kg m3) from haematite (5100
kg m3)
Need a suspension of ferrosilicon (6700 kg m 3)
 Unit Operations 1
Particle Fluid
Separations
Effective fluid density should be between 2650 and 5100
kg m3
Too close to one or the other will make process take too
long to settle out
Go for the average 3875 kg m 3
i.e one cubic metre of suspension carries
x m3 of ferrosilicon @ 6700 kg m3 and
(1 x) m3 of water @ 1000 kg m3 and
weighs 3875 kg overall
 Unit Operations 1
Particle Fluid
Separations
3875 = 1000 (1 x) + 6700 x
3875 = 1000 1000 x + 6700 x
3875 1000 = 6700 x 1000 x
2875 = 5700 x
x = 2875 5700 = 0.5044
ie. suspension is 50.44% by volume ferrosilicon
1.0 m3 has 0.5044 6700 = 3379 kg ferrosilicon
Mass fraction ferrosilicon = 3379 3875
So suspension is 50.4% v/v, 87.2% w/w
Generally struggle to make fluids with > 3000 kg m 3
 Unit Operations 1
Particle Fluid
Separations
This technique has problems:
Ferrosilicon will eventually settle out
SOLUTION: mill it as fine as possible which is expensive
Also, contamination of both products with ferrosilicon
SOLUTION: wash products afterwards
Slow process
SOLUTION: possibly centrifuge but this removes ferrosilicon
also
 Unit Operations 1
Fluid Particle
Mechanics
Lets look at the mechanics of falling particles to find other
processes
Body falling from rest through vacuum
Kinetic energy = Potential energy lost by falling distance h
mu2 = mgh
u = (2gh)
In reality, body is surrounded by fluid
frictional resistance to downward motion
 Unit Operations 1
Fluid Particle
Mechanics
After initial acceleration, TERMINAL VELOCITY is
reached:
f
ut = f (fluid resistance) where Re d.ut

Fluid
Re<0.2
properties Particle
properties

Re>0.2
vortex shedding
 Unit Operations 1
Fluid Particle
Mechanics
At low velocities, STOKES LAW holds:
drag force
F = 3du
if u = ut
F = downward force on particle
= volume apparent density gravity
= (/6) d3 (s f) g

d 2g s f
ut
18
 Unit Operations 1
Fluid Particle
Mechanics
Better to use dimensionless groups:
Re & drag coefficient (R/fu2)
analogy to pipe flow
R = drag force per unit projected area of particle
= F 0.25 d2 = 4F/d2
R 4 F 4 3du
2 2
f u 2
d f u 2
d f u 2

R 12
for Re < 0.2 i.e. LAMINAR FLOW
f u 2
Re
 Unit Operations 1
Fluid Particle
Mechanics

But what
happens
beyond
the
Stokes
Law
region?
 Unit Operations 1
Fluid Particle
Mechanics
R
For 0.2 < Re < 1000;
TRANSITIONAL

12
f u 2 Re
1 0 . 15 Re 0.687

covers a wide Re range, unlike pipe flow
For 1000 < Re < 200 000: NEWTONS LAW R
0.22
fu 2

For Re > 200 000 - turbulent boundary layer R

0.08
(unimportant to us in processes) fu 2
 Unit Operations 1
Fluid Particle
Mechanics
ut is often of interest, but u appears on both sides
R
f Re
fu 2

2
R d s f gd 3 when u = ut

R gd s f
4 6 2
3
R

2 gd
s f
f ut 3 f ut
2 2

2 2 2
u d 2 2 2
u d 3
f

R f t

2 gd
s f 2
f t 2 gd
s f
f ut2
2
3 f ut
2
3 2
 Unit Operations 1
Fluid Particle
Mechanics
R 2 dimensionless group
Re Ga
2

f ut
2
3 GALILEO NUMBER
he Re2 versus Re relationship from pipe flow

Re < 0.2
= 18 Re

Re < 1000
= 18 Re(1 + 0.15 Re0.687)

1000
= 0.333 Re2
Unit Operations 1
Elutriation
Separate light/small particles from heavy/large ones with an
upward draught of fluid
size & density of particle known
fluid properties known
calculate Ga
guess range equation for Re & calculate its exact value
if value falls outside range, choose another range & repeat
calculate terminal velocity from Re
Unit Operations 1
Elutriation
ASSUMPTIONS are that:
Stokes Law applies in lab situations
Newtons Law applies in industry
The latter assumption works better
Unit Operations 1
Elutriation EXAMPLE
Two solids UNIT OPERATIONS 1: Elutriation example
100
quartz (2650 kg m 90
80
3
) % w/w
70 undersized
60
haematite (5100 50
40
kg m3) 30
20
Both same size 10
0
range (2.5 mm to 10 0 2 4 6 12 8 10
mm) particle diameter (mm)

Separation by density alone was tricky (see earlier example

with ferrosilicon suspension)
Separate the two solids with an upward velocity of water
 Unit Operations 1
Elutriation EXAMPLE
What are water velocities needed?
As soon as water velocity matches terminal velocity of
particle, particle is flushed up out of container
Find terminal velocities for
Largest heavy particle
Smallest heavy particle
Largest light particle Most useful
Smallest light particle
Take properties of water to be 1000 kg m 3 and 0.001 Pa.s
Gravitational acceleration is 9.807 m s2
 Unit Operations 1
Elutriation EXAMPLE
Largest heavy particle gd 3 f
Ga s f
2

9.807 0.01 1000

3
Ga 5100 1000
0.001 2

Ga = 40 208 700
Try Newtons Law first, ie. Ga = 0.333 Re2 (if Re > 1000)
Re 3 Ga 3 40208700 10982.9914
Re > 1000 so answer OK
. Re 0.001 10983
ut = 1.098 m s1
d 1000 0.01
Unit Operations 1
Elutriation EXAMPLE
Smallest heavy particle gd 3 f
Ga s f
2

9.807 0.0025 1000

3
Ga 5100 1000
0.001 2

Ga = 628 260.9375
Try Newtons Law first, ie. Ga = 0.333 Re2 (if Re > 1000)
Re 3 Ga 3 628260.9 1372.87
Re > 1000 so answer OK
. Re 0.0011372.87
ut = 0.5491 m s1
d 1000 0.0025
 Unit Operations 1
Elutriation EXAMPLE
What sized light particle is carried away at 0.5491 m s 1?

1000 9.807 1000d 3

Re 0.5491d Ga 2650 1000
0.001 0.001 2

Re = 549 149.6 d Ga = 1.6181551013 d3

Try Newtons Law first, ie. Ga = 0.333 Re2 (if Re > 1000)
1.6181551013 d3 = 0.333 (549150 d)2 = 1.004211011 d2
d = 0.00620 metres
Re = 5491500.00620 = 3408 > 1000
0.5491 m/s will flush away any light particle below 6.2 mm
Unit Operations 1
Elutriation EXAMPLE
How many light particles are carried away at 0.5491 m s1?
Using 6.2 mm from prior calculation:
UNIT OPERATIONS 1: Elutriation example
100
90
80
% w/w
70 undersized
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
particle diameter (mm)

66% by mass of the light particles are carried away

Unit Operations 1
Elutriation EXAMPLE
Largest light particle gd 3 f
Ga s f
2

9.807 0.01 1000

3
Ga 2650 1000
0.001 2

Ga = 16 181 550
Try Newtons Law first, ie. Ga = 0.333 Re2 (if Re > 1000)
Re 3 Ga 3 16181550 6967.399
Re > 1000 so answer OK
. Re 0.001 6967.399
ut = 0.6967 m s1
d 1000 0.01
Unit Operations 1
Elutriation EXAMPLE
What sized heavy particle is carried away at 0.6967 m s1?

1000 9.807 1000d 3

Re 0.6967 d Ga 5100 1000
0.001 0.001 2

Re = 696 740 d Ga = 4.020871013 d3

Try Newtons Law first, ie. Ga = 0.333 Re2 (if Re > 1000)
4.020871013 d3 = 0.333 (696740 d)2 = 1.616541011 d2
d = 0.00402 metres
Re = 6967400.00402 = 2801.2 > 1000
0.6967 m s1 will flush away any heavy particle below 4.0 mm
Also flush away any light particle below 10 mm (ie. any)
Unit Operations 1
Elutriation EXAMPLE
How many heavy particles are carried away at 0.6967 m s1?
Using 4.0 mm from prior calculation:
UNIT OPERATIONS 1: Elutriation example
100
90
80
% w/w
70 undersized
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
particle diameter (mm)

48% by mass of the heavy particles are carried away

 Unit Operations 1
Elutriation EXAMPLE
Smallest light particle
gd f 9.807 0.0025 1000
3 3

Ga s f
0.001 2
2650 1000
2

Ga = 252 836.7188
Try Newtons Law first, ie. Ga = 0.333 Re2 (if Re > 1000)
Re 3 Ga 3 252836.72 870.92
Now 1000 > Re > 0.2 so Newtons Law no longer applies
Need an iterative solution
Make Re = 870.9 our first guess
Unit Operations 1
Elutriation EXAMPLE
Smallest light particle
Ga = 18 Re(1 + 0.15 Re0.687) where Ga = 252 837
Re 18 Re(1 + 0.15 Re0.687) Conclusion

870.9 261 764 too high

860 256 394 still too high
850 251 507 slightly too low
855 253 946 too high
853 252 970 very close
852 252 482 Re = 853 was closest
. Re 0.001 853
ut = 0.3412 m s1
d 1000 0.0025
 Unit Operations 1
Elutriation EXAMPLE
So our separation process will be as follows
Velocity (m s1) Lights carried away Heavies carried away
0 0.3412 none none
0.3412 0.5491 2.5 mm 6.2 mm none
0.5491 0.6967 6.2 mm 10 mm 2.5 mm 4.0 mm
0.6967 1.098 all 4.0 mm 10 mm
1.098 all all
 Unit Operations 1
Elutriation EXAMPLE
Set up process as follows:
66% of Quartz fed
2.5 mm 6.2 mm 34% of Quartz: 6.2 mm -10 mm
48% of Haematite: 2.5 mm 4.0 mm
SCREENS
Feed
All Haematite 52% of Haematite:
Quartz 6.2 mm 10 4.0 mm 10 mm
mm
Water @
0.5491 m s1 Water @
0.6967 m s1