Bulk Deformation Processes

Shape changes on the workpiece by plastic deformation

under forces applied by various tools and dies

Primary working operations (break ingot down into shapes

such as slabs, plates, and billits) forging, rolling, and
extrusion

Secondary working operations involve further processing

of the product from primary working into final or semifinal
products (bolts, sheet metal parts, wire)
 Hot forming
hot rolling or forging
to break down the ingot
structure
diffusion processes are
accelerated by the high
temperature and by the
reformation of grains
the chemical
nonhomogeneity of the
casting is reduced
blowholes and porosity
are eliminated
 In order to refine the original dendritic structure of the ingot, it is
necessary to reach deformation degrees of about 5 to 6
a fibrous structure that leads to anisotropy
favorable directions of fibers is of the importance, special
design requirement in performing the individual steps in
closed die forging
impurities will segregate along grain boundaries (grains will
recrystallize but not segregates)
design the forging process so as to result in fibers following
the overall shape of the forging
 a) cooling of an ingot
b) heating up the ingot for forging
c,d,e) forging finished at subsequently lower temperatures
f) forging continued below A1. This is cold working, there is no
more grain refinement; the material strain-hardens
 a crystallographic fibrous structure
due to lattice rotations, the grains elongate in the directions of rolling
or drawing (this kind of structure is called texture)
cold work is mostly combined with annealing and/or stress-relieving
heat treatment

recovery or stress-relieving at 0.3 to 0.5 Tm, grain size does not

change, mechanical properties change only slightly
residual stresses produced by cold work are eliminated
 recrystallization can only occur in a metal that has been plastically
deformed, and it depends strongly on the degree of that
deformation
 the grain coarsening process becomes much more intensive if the
temperature is increased above the recrystallization temperature
 through recrystallization, the ductility of the metal is fully restored,
and all increase of strength and hardness obtained by cold work is
eliminated
 Cold work and anneal cycle
cold rolling
cold drawing
primary cold forming operations are followed by annealing
grain boundaries have high surface energy and therefore serve as
preferential sites for solid state reaction such as
diffusion
phase transformation
precipitation
higher concentrations of solute atoms than the interior of the
grains
lattice rotations lead to the formation of deformation bands
material strain hardness
 Forging
5000 BC
typical parts made by forging are crankshafts and connecting rods
for engines, turbine disks, hand tools, and many types of structural
components for machinery and transportation equipment
can be carried out at room temperature and at elevated temperature
the three basic categories of forging are
open die
impression die
closed die
 Open die forging
 Forces and work of deformation under ideal conditions
friction is zero
material is perfectly plastic
workpiece is a cylinder
volume stays constant
the ideal work of deformation is the product of the volume of the
specimen and the specific energy. This is the minimum energy or
the ideal energy required for uniform deformation
for the strain hardening materials
k n
the force at any stage during deformation is
F Y f A1
Yf - the flow stress of the material
 the work of deformation is
Work V Y 1
Y - the average flow stress
1
k n d
k1n
Y 0

1 n 1
u Y1
u represents the work dissipated in uniaxial deformation
for triaxial states of stresses the work of deformation per unit
volume is
du 1d1 2 d 2 3 d 3
The work is W = uV and represents the minimum energy required
for homogenous deformation
 the energy for actual deformation is
Utotal=Uideal+Ufriction+Uredundant

The efficiency of a process is U ideal

depends on

the particular process U total
frictional conditions
die geometry
other process parameters
30-60% for extrusion
75-95% for rolling
 Open die forging
all types of hammers or presses may be used in open die forging
the forging is too large
the required quantity is too small
 Roll forging
it could be used as the final forging operation
most often is used as a preliminary operation eliminating the need
for too many impressions in the forging dies
 Closed die forging
a wide variety of sizes and from different materials
big volume production of parts with complex shapes
high requirements on structural integrity, strength, and toughness
the forgings may be made in various degrees of tolerance
blocker
conventional
precision forgings
the largest user of forgings is the aerospace industry. 32% of the
total value of forgings in the USA
the second largest user of forgings is the automotive industry.
20%
 Closed die forging
the workpiece acquires the shape of the die cavities (impressions)
because of high length to thickness ratio, the flash is subjected to
high pressure causing high frictional resistance to material flow in
the radial direction in the flash gap
the flash is cooling faster than the bulk of the workpiece causing
the resistance to deformation
 Closed die forging
flashless forging, precision forging
proper control of the volume of material is essential to obtain a forging of
desired dimensions
it requires higher capacity forging equipment than do other forging
processes
particularly suitable for Al and Mg alloys
it requires special dies
much less machining is involved
the forging is done in several steps
in the performing stages, the material in the form of rod is redistributed
along its length so as to roughly correspond to the needs of the final shape
the distribution of the material leads to better die life and improved quality
of the forging
drawing out - reduction of one end
fullering - reduction of the center
edging or rollering - increasing the cross section
 the design of forgings, preforms, and dies is a difficult task
CAD - that incorporates rules based on experience and on methods
of computation of pressure and temperature loads in the dies
shapes with tall and slender vertical projections are most difficult
to forge
 Hot and cold upsetting
hot upset forging enlarges and reshapes the cross sectional area of
the end of a bar or tube of uniform cross section
developed for heading bolts, flanges shafts, etc.
 the isothermal forging or hot die forging the dies are heated to the
same temperature as the hot blank
cooling of the workpiece is eliminated
the low flow stress of material
material flow in the die cavities is improved
the dies are made of nickle alloys
expensive
 Rolling
accounts for about 90% of all metals produced by metalworking
processes
developed in the late 1500s
basic products:
plates
sheet
 Primary hot rolling
to produce slabs,
blooms, and billets
defects, such as
cracks, folds, scabs,
seams, etc. should be
removed before the
next hot rolling
process
 After conditioning, the
semifinished steel is
heated again for
further rolling into
plates, bars, rods,
various profiles such
as I, U, H, and railroad
rail.
The amount of
reduction of thickness
is called draft.
 larger draft requires larger radius of rollers, and therefore a larger
length of contact.
 Rolling mill configurations
 Hot forming of tubes and pipes
gas, oil, and water transportation
construction of railing, scaffolds, columns, and bridges
drilling for oil and natural gas
for boilers and heat exchangers
two processes
butt welding
d = 12 - 100mm hot compression
up to 500mm electric resistance welding
seamless pipes
d up to 650mm
high tensile stress is generated, causing a crack
produced by
hot rolling
hot extrusion
cold drawing
 Roll deflection and flattening
the flattening of the rolls elastically
the higher the elastic modulus of the roll material, he less the roll
distorts
 Defects
surface defects caused by inclusions and impurities, scale, rust,
dirt, roll marks
structural defects - affect the integrity of the rolled product
 Residual stresses
caused by inhomogeneous plastic deformation in the roll gap