Control And

Regulation
The Humans
Nervous Systemthat conducts stimuli
It is a system
from sensory receptors to the
brain and spinal cord and that
conducts impulses back to the
effectors / other parts of the body.
The human nervous system has
two main parts: the ;
Central nervous system (the brain
and spinal cord) and Peripheral
nervous system (the nerves that
carry impulses to and from the
central nervous system).
Basic components of a control system.
Stimulus (input)

Detector / Receptor

Coordinator/Regulator/Control Centre

Effector

Responses (output)
The Humans
Nervous System
It is made up of highly specialized
cells that function to :
receive stimuli from
environment.
convert the stimuli into the
form of electrical impulses.
Transmit electrical impulses
from sensory receptors to the
CNS and then to the effector for
appropriate response.
Control Control voluntary
involuntary movement.
movement.
Sense organs /
Sense organs / receptors CNS
receptors CNS PNS SNS
PNS ANS effector.
effector.
Skeletal muscles.
Smooth muscles
or glands.
Between the receptors and effectors are the
conducting cells of nervous system, called the
neurone.
Types of nerve
cells :
There are three
types of nerve
cell ;
(i)sensory
neuron,
(ii)motor neuron
(iii)interneuron.
Each has a cell
body and nerve
fiber.
Types of nerve
cells :
The part of the
fiber which
conducts nerve
impulses away
from the cell
body is called
axon whereas
the part which
conducts nerve
impulses into
the cell body is
Sensory /
afferent neuron
Motor /
efferent neuron
How does impulse travel/conduct along an axon/nerve fibers?
Nerve impulse jumps from node to node along the nerve
fibers.
Measuring electrical activity in neurons :
The resting potential :
The potential difference across the
membrane at rest is due to the
negative charge inside the cell with
respect to the outside.
At this stage the membrane is said
to be polarized and the potential
difference across the membrane is
called the resting potential.
The potential difference is about
70mV.
 The axoplasm has a high
concentration of potassium (K+)
ions and a low concentration of
sodium (Na+) ions, in contrast to
 Certain amount of ions leak in or
out passively through channel
proteins in the axon membrane.
 More potassium ions are leaked
out and only a small amount of
sodium ions are leaked in.
 The resting potential is
maintained by the active transport
of ions against their
electrochemical gradient by the
sodium/potassium pumps (carrier
proteins)
More Sodium ions are forced out
whilst more Potassium ions are
forced in through active transport.
The outside membrane is
becoming relatively more positive
than the inside membrane.
The action potential :
An action potential is generated by
a sudden brief opening of the sodium
gates which is closed during the
resting period.
Opening of these gates will
increase the permeability of the axon
membrane to sodium ions which
enter the axon by facilitated
diffusion.
The action potential :
This happens in response to a
stimulus which later maybe could
bring about a slight depolarization or
loss of charge of the axon membrane.
At this stage the membrane is said
to be depolarized.
The action potential :
The strength of the stimulation
determines the numbers of sodium
gates to be opened.
The stronger the stimulation, more
sodium gates will be opened.
When more sodium gates are
opened, more sodium ions diffuse
into the axoplasm down the
concentration gradient.
The action potential :
At this stage the membrane is said
to be depolarized.
The outer membrane is becoming
relatively more negative than the
inside membrane.
Threshold level ; A significant
difference of change in the voltage
between the inside and the outside
membrane (>-40mV).
The action potential :
The all-or-none law ;
If the intensity of stimulation is
less than the threshold level, no
action potential is produced.
After the action potential is
produced, further increase in the
intensity of the stimulus does not
result in an increased
magnitude/intensity of the action
potential.
The intensity of the action
 At resting state, both the Sodium
and Potassium gates are closed.
Membrane is said to be
polarized.
The outside membrane is
 The present of stimulus will
activate the Sodium gates to
open.
The more Sodium gates open the
more Sodium ions enter into the
 When the strength / magnitude
of the stimulus is more than the
threshold level, all the Sodium
gates are opened allowing more
Sodium ions to enter.
The membrane is said to be
depolarized.
 When there is no more stimulus
all the Sodium gates will be
closed whilst the Potassium
gates remain opened.
Sodium ions are forced out via
active transport.
 When sodium ions are forced out
from the axoplasm, at one stage
the inside membrane becomes
more negative in charge then it
should be.
The membrane is said to be
Diagram of the neurochemical processes involved
during the formation of an action potential.
Transmission of an
impulse:
In myelinated
axons, the action
potential appears to
jump along the axon
in a process known
as saltatory
conduction.
The action
potential jumps from
one Node of Ranvier
 The Nodes of
Ranvier contain
many voltage-
gated sodium
channels and are
spaced along the
axon to allow for
the regeneration
of the action
potential.
 Neurones that
have large -
diameter
unmyelinated
axons conduct
action potentials
faster than small-
diameter
unmyelinated
axons.
A myelin sheath
offers increased
conduction