Life-Span Development

Twelfth Edition
Chapter 2:
Biological Beginnings

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 Natural Selection: an evolutionary process by which
those individuals of a species that are best adapted are
the ones that survive and reproduce
Based on Darwins theory
Survival characteristics are passed on in genes
Can produce a gradual modification of the population over many
generations
Survival characteristics may change based on environmental
conditions
Adaptive Behavior: behavior that promotes an
organisms survival in the natural habitat

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 Evolutionary Psychology: emphasizes the
importance of adaptation, reproduction, and
survival of the fittest in shaping behavior
Fit: the ability to bear offspring that survive long
enough to bear offspring of their own
Natural selection favors behaviors that increase
reproductive success
David Buss is a very influential evolutionary
psychologist

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 Extended childhood period allows time to
develop a large brain and learn complexity of
human society
Many evolved psychological mechanisms are
domain-specific
Information processing
Evolved mechanisms are not always adaptive
in contemporary society

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2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Why do humans live so long after
reproduction?
Perhaps older people improve the survival rate of
babies
Paul Baltes: benefits of evolutionary selection
decrease with age
Natural selection is tied to reproductive fitness
Does not weed out harmful conditions that appear
among older adults
Increases our need for culture

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 Evolutionary psychology approach is just one
theory of many
It has its limitations and weaknesses, and its critics
Bidirectional view: environmental and
biological conditions influence each other
Evolution gives us bodily structures and biological
potentialities, but it does not dictate behavior
People create behavior in the context of culture

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 Human life begins as a single cell
Nucleus of each cell contains chromosomes
Chromosomes: thread-like structures made up of DNA
DNA: a complex double-helix molecule that contains
genetic information
Genes: units of hereditary information in each
chromosome
Genes direct cells to reproduce themselves and to
assemble proteins
Proteins: building blocks of cells and regulators
that direct the bodys processes
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 Each gene has its own unique location on a
particular chromosome
Human Genome Project attempted to map the
human genome
Genome: complete set of developmental instructions for the
making of a human organism
Results indicated that humans have about 20,000 to
22,000 genes
Humans have far more proteins than they have genes
Genes collaborate with each other and with non-
genetic factors inside and outside the body
Genetic expression is affected by the environment

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2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 All cells in the human body (except sperm and
egg) have 46 chromosomes arranged in 23
pairs
Mitosis: reproduction of cells
Nucleus (including chromosomes) duplicate, and
the cell divides
Meiosis: cell division that forms sperm and
eggs (gametes)
Each cell divides twice, forming four cells with 23
unpaired chromosomes

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 Fertilization: fusing of sperm and egg to create
a zygote
Creates one set of paired chromosomes (23 from
each parent)
Childs sex determined by 23rd pair of
chromosomes
XX = female, XY = male

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2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Combining genes of both parents increases
genetic variability
Chromosomes in zygote are not exact copies
Identical (monozygotic) twins develop from a
single zygote that splits into two
Fraternal (dizygotic) twins develop from
separate eggs and sperm
Gene mutations can permanently alter
segments of DNA

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 Genotype: a persons genetic material
Phenotype: observable characteristics
A range of phenotypes can be expressed for each
genotype
Dominant-Recessive Genes Principle: a
dominant gene always exerts its effects,
overriding the potential influence of the
recessive gene
A recessive gene only exerts influence if both genes
in a pair are recessive

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 Sex-linked genes:
X-linked inheritance occurs when a mutated gene is
carried on the X chromosome
More likely to affect males than females
Females have a second X chromosome, which is likely to be
unchanged
Men do not have a second X chromosome to counteract the effect
Females are still carriers
Examples: hemophilia and fragile-X syndrome

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 Genetic Imprinting: occurs when genes have
differing effects depending on whether they are
inherited from the mother or the father
Polygenetic Inheritance: characteristics that are
determined by the interaction of many different
genes
Most characteristics are determined in this manner

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 Chromosome abnormalities usually involve the sperm
and ovum lacking a normal set of 23 chromosomes
Down syndrome: caused by the presence of an extra copy
of chromosome 21
Sex-linked abnormalities involve the presence of an
extra X or Y chromosome (or the absence of one)
Klinefelter syndrome: males born with XXY instead of
XY
Fragile X syndrome: occurs more often in males than
females; X chromosome constricted or breaks off
Turner syndrome: females born with XO rather than XX,
sometimes causing infertility
XYY syndrome: males with extra Y chromosome

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 Gene-linked abnormalities are caused by
harmful genes
PKU: inability to metabolize phenylalanine
Sickle-cell anemia: impaired red blood
cells die more quickly; more often found
in African Americans
Other abnormalities: cystic fibrosis, diabetes, spina
bifida, Huntington disease, and Tay-Sachs disease

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2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Every individual carries DNA variations, but
most do not display a disorder
Today, many genetic diseases can be detected
prior to and immediately after birth
However, knowledge of genetic flaws leads to
difficult choices about how to manage such
information
Genetic counselors help people make
reproductive decisions

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 Ultrasound Sonography: high-frequency sound waves
used to create a visual representation of fetuss inner
structures
Fetal MRI: magnetic resonance imaging designed to
diagnose fetal malformations
Chorionic Villus Sampling: small sample of placenta
is removed to detect genetic and chromosomal
abnormalities
Amniocentesis: samples amniotic fluid to test for
chromosomal or metabolic disorders
Maternal Blood Screening: identifies pregnancies with
elevated risk for certain birth defects

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 Infertility: the inability to conceive a child
after 12 months of attempting
In Vitro Fertilization (IVF): egg and sperm are
combined in a laboratory dish; fertilized egg is
transferred to womans uterus
Success depends on womans age
Increases risk of multiple births
Higher risk of life-threatening problems
Health risks to mother
Possible psychological effects on children

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2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Adoption: an alternative to infertility treatment
Children adopted early in life fare better than
children adopted later
Somewhat more likely to experience psychological
and school-related problems than non-adopted
children
No differences in antisocial behavior or self-esteem
Vast majority of adopted children adjust effectively,
and most parents are satisfied with their decision to
adopt

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 Behavior Genetics: seeks to discover the
influence of heredity and environment on
individual differences in human traits and
development
Twin studies: compare identical (monozygotic)
twins with fraternal (dizygotic) twins
Adoption studies: compare the characteristics of
adopted children with their adoptive parents and
their biological parents
May also compare adopted and biological siblings
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 Heredity Environment Correlations:
individuals genes may influence the types of
environments to which they are exposed

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 Shared environmental experiences: siblings
common experiences
Non-shared environmental experiences: a
childs unique experiences, both within and
outside the family
Shared environment accounts for little of the
variation in childrens personality or interest
Heredity influences the non-shared environments
through heredityenvironment correlations

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 Epigenetic view: development is an ongoing,
bi-directional interchange between heredity
and environment
Heredity and environment operate together

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 The relative contributions of heredity and
environment are not additive
Complex behaviors have some genetic loading
that gives people a propensity for a particular
developmental path
Our environment is complex, and the interaction
of heredity and environment is extensive
Much needs to be learned about specific ways in
which environment and genetics interact to
influence development

2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.