Chapter 2

Physiological Basis of Behavior

 Physiology - study of the physical and chemical
processes that take place in living organisms
during the performance of life functions.
Behavior - the way in which a person, organism,
or group responds to a certain set of conditions
Physiological structures enables us to respond
and interact with each stimulus (environment)
 Physiological structure
Receptors (sense organ) - we become
aware of our environment.
Connectors (nervous system) - message are
transmitted from the receptors to the effectors
causing us to react as a coordinate organism.
Effectors (muscles and gland) - we respond
to that environment
 Nervous system
Nervous System, those elements w/in the organism that
are concerned with the reception of the stimulus,
transmission of nerve impulses, or activation of muscle
mechanisms
INTERRELATED DIVISIONS
Central nervous system - which made up of brain and the
spinal cord.
Peripheral nervous system - which connects the brain and
the spinal cord to everything else in the body such as the
sense organs, muscle and glands
 Neuron
Neuron (nerve cell) the basic structural unit of the nervous system
has a cell body composed of membrane, cytoplasm, and
nucleus.

Fiber appendages cannot be found in other cells

Axons - are long, slim, and tube like fibers which carry messages or
impulses away from the cell body toward other neurons. They are
surrounded by fatty and protein material covering called myelin sheath.

Dendrites - are short fibers branching out from the cells which receive
impulses and carry them toward their own bodies.
 3 Kinds of Neurons in Function
Sensory neurons - collect impulses from sense organs and direct these
impulses to the spinal cord or to the brain. Also called as afferent neurons.
Motor neurons - carry impulses from the central nervous system to the
muscle and glands. Also called as efferent neurons.
Connector neurons - connects the sensory and motor
3 Kinds of connector neurons
1. Neurons which receive impulses from the spinal cord and carry them
up to the brain.
2. Neurons which transmit impulses from one area to another area of the
same hemisphere.
3. Neurons which transmit impulses from one hemisphere of the brain to
another.
 Nerve impulse
Messages are transmitted by the neurons in the form of nerve
impulses. This impulses involve some electro-chemical reaction
within the nerve fiber.
Different States of Nerve Impulses
Polarized state neurons in rest. Electrical charges outside
and in the nerve surface in equilibrium.
Stimulated State nerve impulses become imbalanced.
Absolute Refractory Period immediately after a neuron has
transmitted, no further stimuli can charged at the moment.
Partial Refractory Period occurs after gradual recovery of
Absolute refractory period.
 Synapses - nerve junctures that a nerve impulse pass
through. Can be thought as an intersection
2 neural function occur in synapses
A nerve impulse may be slowed down, inhibited and not allowed
to go any further.
A nerve impulse entering a synaptic junction may activate many
other connecting fiber.

Synapses enable us to respond in variety of ways,

involving many or few body parts.
 Reflexes - are simple inborn, automatic responses of
some parts of the body.
- involuntary response to a stimulus.
- simplest synaptic arrangement.
- messages are directly transmitted from
sensory to motor neurons called sensory-
motor arc.
- reflexes activates our muscles in those
situations where our brain would take
too long to respond
 Examples of common reflexes
1. Pupillary reflex narrowing of the pupil of the
eyes in response to excessive light/illumination.
2. Gagging reflex protective reflex when an
abject is lodge at the back of the tongue.

3. Salivation reaction when one smells tasty

food.

4. Flexion reflex withdrawal of the hand when

a hot object is touched
5. Extension reflex -Stiffening of the legs to
support weight
 Neurotransmitters chemical
substances that connects the nervous
system and behavior.
- carries impulses across the synapse
to dendrites
- helps in monitoring vital functions of
the brain and the body.
- excess or deficiency results to
behavioral problems
There are more than 50 known
chemical neurotransmitters.
 Popular Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine ACL- carries impulses to skeletal muscles.
It is associated with memory capability and deficiency may
result in memory loss or Alzheimers disease.
Gamma-amino Butyric Acid(GABA) inhibitory
transmitter. It controls behavior such as aggression and
eating.
Dopamine-high levels may form mental disturbance like
schizophrenia.
Adenosine Triphosphate ATP- essential in formation of
synapses vital to memory functions
Endorphins help brain to control pain
 The Central Nervous System
(CNS)
CNS serves to connect the sensory and the motor fiber
within the nervous system, it is the integrating center for
all behavior and bodily function.
Spinal cord - it serves as the connector mechanism for
spinal reflexes and connecting link between the
peripheral system and the brain.
Spinal nerves - the spaces between the spinal
vertebrate at regular intervals.
2 roots of spinal nerves
Dorsal root - carries sensory nerve fibers.
Ventral root - carries motor nerve fiber.
 Brain - contains all the higher centers for various
sensory impulses, and it initiates, controls and
coordinates mascular movement.
3 Major Parts of the brain
Hindbrain - which is close to the spinal cord is
composed of 3 parts.
1. Medulla oblongata - serve as the connecting link
between the spinal cord and the brain proper.
2. Pons - which lies in the brain stem above the
medulla oblongata is made up largely of nerve
fiber that connect higher and lower level of
nervous system.
3. Cerebellum - its principal role is to maintain
posture and to smooth out and coordinate
complex muscular activities.
 Midbrain - serve as the connecting link between the
hindbrain and the forebrain. It connects the sensory and
motor pathways between the lower and upper portion of
the nervous system.
Forebrain - it is composed of 2 large cerebral
hemisphere, and a number of important structure within
the central region of the hemisphere.
3 parts of forebrain
1. Thalamus - it is a large group of nuclei which serves as
a relay station for sensory impulses to the appropriate
areas of the brain.
2. Hypothalamus - consisting of a group of small nuclei
below the thalamus plays a central role in regulating many
hormonal secretions that regulate sexual development
and behavior, metabolism, and reaction to stress.
3. Cerebrum - which is divided into right and left
cerebral hemisphere. It is the seat of
consciousness and the higher processes, such as
language and abstract thinking.
Cortex - composed primarily of neuron cell bodies
and dendrites and an internal white core composed
of axons that connect areas of the hemispheres
with each other and with other parts of the brain.
Convolution - increase the area of the brain thus
making it possible for the brain to hold billions of
bits of information.
4 lobes of cerebral hemisphere
1. Frontal lobes
2. Parietal lobes somesthetic or body-sense
3. Temporal lobes auditory area
4. Occipital lobes visual area
 Motor area - which control all bodily movement is
located in front of the central fissure.
Brocas area - which integrates and coordinates
our speech.
Association area - they connect with the different
parts of the brain.

Reticular activating system (ras)

Is known to be important in activating the cortex
of the cerebral hemisphere. it controls the state of
arousal of awareness, as in changing from sleep
to walking or from diffuse awareness to alert
attention.
 The Peripheral Nervous System
The main function is to conduct impulses to
and from the central nervous system.
2 major division
Somatic system - includes the sensory system
and the motor nerves that activate skeletal
(voluntary) muscles responsible for
movement.
Cranial nerves - serve as the receptors and
effectors of the head.
Spinal nerves - serve the chest, trunk, and
extremes.
 Autonomic system - also called the vegetative nervous
system, is concerned with activities of the body that
make us alive the glands, internal organs, and other
organs that function involuntary without our awareness
and control our emotional behavior.
2 parts of autonomic system
Sympathetic division - it is responsible for the
mobilization and expenditure of body energies
particularly to stressful emergency an threatening
situation.
Parasympathetic division -it calms the body after
the emergency situation is resolved.
 The Endocrine System
Working in conjunction with the nervous system to
control the bodily function and behavior.
Homeostasis which is the maintenance of biochemical
in the body.
Hormones are directly secreted by these glands into
the blood stream.
Associated organs and tissues of the body that
collectively release substances known as hormones.
Endocrine organs are also known as ductless glands
because their secretions are released directly into the
bloodstream
 Pituitary Gland
Is a small gland suspended directly under the
optic chiasma of the brain. This is called a
master gland of the body because it secretes
hormones that control the activities of other
gland.
2 parts of pituitary gland
Anterior lobe secretes several important
hormones which have to do with growth, the
formation of milk, and the functioning of other
endocrine gland
 Posterior lobe secretes two
types of hormone.
1. Vasopressin which controls
excretion of water through
the kidneys, and oxytoxin
which stimulate contractions
of the uterus during labor.
2. Diabetes insipidus which is
characterized as a big
volume of urine discharge,
thus resulting in dehydration,
extreme weakness.

Neuro-homoral substances -
substance which serve as
mediator of nervous activity
secreted by the posterior
pituitary lobe.
 Thyroid gland
Is located at the base of the throat, near the Adam's apple in males.
Thyroxin -main hormone secreted , increase the cellular rate of
carbohydrate metabolism and of protein synthesis and breakdown.
Controls basal metabolism.
Disorders of the thyroid gland
Hyperthyroidism - there is augmented metabolism and
consequently, rapid psychological processes like accelerated
heartbeat, increase temperature, flushed and moist skin.
Cretinism - if it occurs during childhood, a cretin is characterized by
arrested physical and mental development.
Myxedema - is characterized by slowing of motor activity, increase
of weight, slowing of speech, yellowing of skin and thickening of lips.
 Adrenaline Glands
It is located at the top of kidney, and its controls chemical
mechanism.
2 parts of adrenaline glands
1. Medulla
Adrenalin or epinephrine
Noradrenalin or norepinephrine
Which serve to give us extra energy needed during
emergencies and prolonged stress.
2. Adrenal - cortex secretes a number of hormones the control
many basic chemical mechanism within the body.
Addisons disease which produce marked changes in
individual behavior.
Cushings disease which is characterized by round
face, growth of beard and cessation menstruation.
 Islets of Langerhans
The pancreas which contains the Islets of langerhans is located posterior
to the stomach .

Promotes utilization of sugar by the body cells. Through the duct it

delivers a pancreatic secretion into the digestive tract thereby aiding the
digestion.
Insulin - hormone, produced in the islets of Langerhans of the pancreas,
that regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and starches in the
body

Glucagons - Its function is to help maintain a normal blood-sugar

level.Produced by the pancreas

Hypoinsulinism - when the supply of insulin is below normal. As in

diabetes mellitus
Hyperinsulinism- there is a rapid utilization of sugar in the blood resulting
in extreme weakness.
 Gonads
Is a primary sexual gland.

male sex glands

Testes
Testosterone which promote male secondary sex
characteristics that make the male look typically masculine.

Female sex glands

Ovaries
Estrogen is responsible for the appearance of the secondary
sex characteristics which make a girl look typically a feminine.
Progesterone stimulates the thickening of the uterine lining in
preparation for pregnancy.
 Parathyroid Glands
Regulates calcium level in the blood.
Hormones
Parathormone - which controls the
balance of various minerals in the
blood stream particularly calcium.
Tetany - which is characterized
stiffening of the hands and fingers,
muscle, cramps, and irritability.