EFFECTIVE

ACADEMIC WRITING
SKILLS
By
Paul Svongoro
October 2016
TABLE OF CONTENTS
The assumption & the reality about writing
Expectations about writing at varsity level
What is writing & academic writing?
The importance of writing well
The nature of academic writing
The writing process
Effective paragraph writing
Effective argument
Conclusion
References
WHAT I WILL NOT CLAIM/DO ...
A specialist in research methods in the humanities
An expert in writing- it is the most cumbersome activity in
academia if not the most difficult especially getting started
and going!
Teach/inculcate one way of writing- we all write
differently- what works for 1 may not for the other!
Prescribe a citation method- you know the expectations in
the humanities!

SO WE ARE HERE TO...

Share insights and experiences about writing to improve the

quality of our writing !!!!
ASSUMPTIONS & THE REALITY
ABOUT WRITING
Many people assume that a real writer can
pick up a pen/sit at a computer & magically
write a finished product which is
perfect/polished up (Troyka, 2000)

Experienced writers however know that:

Writing is a process involving a number of
related stages
Good writing is rewriting- their drafts are filled
with additions, deletions, rearrangements &
rewordings, recast information
 EXPECTATIONS AT VARSITY
LEVEL
In-depth understanding of research practices,
methods & techniques- these are usually more
sophisticated than at SEC SCH level
Work with a multi-faceted research
question/problem and several subsidiary
questions/problems
Greater critical capacity- in review & analyses
Work with more complex data, including data
management and presentation
Go beyond mere description to interpretation of data
noting significant patterns & trends
Should be able to draw conclusions which engage
with the stated research questions
DEFINITION OF WRITING
A way of communicating a message for a purpose to
readers/audience:

Purpose-inform, persuade (also called argumentative

writing as it requires arguing for a position, or to
create literary work

Audience-Your ability to reach your audience defines

how good your writing is.

The way you write should show an awareness of your

audience as writing without an audience is risky!
(Park-tao Ng, 2008)
WHAT WRITING IS
1. A way of discovering and learning

. Gives a way to think through ideas deeply

. Activates ones brain processes the mind

then leaps from what you know to what you
didnt see before

. These new insights & increased knowledge

become available after the physical act of
writing begins
WHAT WRITING IS
2. A way of thinking and reflecting

Helps one to think of his/her ideas, to clarify

them and put them into words

Allows one to look back at his/her ideas,

reconsider them, rearrange them & revise
them in writing
WHAT WRITING IS
3. A way of teaching by creating reading for
others
What you write teaches others of your
subject
Through writing, you create a permanent
record of your ideas for others to read &
think about
Reading informs & shapes human thought
In an open/free/democratic society every
person is free to write thus create reading
for others
THE ABILITY TO WRITE WELL
Because writing is critical as cited above, the
ability to write well is important at all
levels

SO....

Writing well depends on ones clarity and

effectiveness of language use
THE NATURE OF ACADEMIC
WRITING
What academic writing is?
expository and argumentative prose used by
university students and researchers to
convey a body of information about a
particular subject area (Arnaudet & Barret,
1994).
Generally, academic writing is according to
specific conventions which require it to be
precise, formal, impersonal, and objective
FEATURES OF ACADEMIC
WRITING
Complexity-written texts are more complex & elaborate than
spoken---however some think it is needlessly
complex/opaque/elitist/inaccessible & are advocating for a move
to simplicity (Clayton, 2015)
Formality
Audience centred
Precision- facts, stats & figures are precise, no a lot of, no
generalisations
Objectivity- I, me, myself, no emotion laden words-
ridiculous/scandalous, all men are dogs
Explicit & logical- clear signposting, logical connections/relations
between ideas
Hedging-cautious language- modal verbs, lexical verbs, adverbs of
frequency- ideas are not absolute-there is always room for doubt
Illustrative-examples, tables, graphs from research/experiences
Highly intertextual
THE WRITING PROCESS
Prewriting (Pak-tao Ng, 2008)
Question/topic analysis- study the
key/instruction words
Planning-locating, developing, organising &
trying out ideas
Focusing topic- narrowing/refocusing
Gathering ideas-Brainstorming, Mind mapping
What argument position to take?
Research
COMMON INSTRUCTION WORDS/VERBS
1. Account for
Give reasons for; explain (note: give an account of; describe)

2. Analyse
Break the information into constituent parts, examine the relationship between the parts; question the information

3. Argue
Put the case for or against a view or idea giving evidence for your claims/reasons for or against, attempt to influence the reader
to accept your view
7. Compare
Look for similarities and differences between; perhaps conclude which is preferable; implies evaluation.

9. Contrast
Bring out the differences.

10. Criticise
Give your judgement on theories or opinions or facts and back this by discussing evidence or reasoning involved

11. Deduce
Conclude; infer.

12. Define
Give the precise meaning, Examine the different possible or often used definitions

19.Evaluate
Weigh up, Appraise the worth of something in the light of its truth or usefulness; assess and explain.

20.Examine
Look at carefully; consider.

21. Explain
Make plain and clear; give reasons for

22.Give evidence
Provide evidence from your own work or that of others which could be checked by a third party to prove/ justify what you say

23.State
Present in a brief, clear form

THE PROCESS CONTD

Writing
Writing the ideas in sentences and
paragraphs
This stage gives the draft
The structure of the draft depends on what
one is writing- chapter, paper, essay or
dissertation
THE PROCESS CONTD
POST-WRITING
Revising
To evaluate the draft, to re-write the draft by
adding, cutting, replacing & recasting
information. It makes the purpose clearer, the
argument stronger, the details sharper, the
evidence more convincing, the organisation
more logical, the opening more inviting & the
conclusion more satisfying (Fulwiler &
Hayakawa, 2009)
Editing

Proofreading
THE PROCESS CONTD
Editing- everything you start doing after finishing the
first draft- e.g. Reorganise, transitions, check the
evidence:
Content edit- what topic/question requires, are
arguments complete & consistent
General structure edit- thesis, intro, dvpnt,
conclusion
Paragraph structure edit- structure & transitions
Style edit- formal/non-sexist/active/necessary
repetition
Clarity edit-terms, sentence meaning, pronoun
reference
Citations-accuracy, completeness, consistency
THE PROCESS CONTD
Proofreading- the final stage of the editing
process. It comes after all editing.
Check for surface errors- spelling,
punctuation, grammar, typographical errors,
numbers and abbreviations
Read slowly & check for 1 kind of mistake at
a time
Never over rely on spelling checks!
PARAGRAPH WRITING
What is a paragraph?
A paragraph is a collection of sentences
which all relate to one idea or topic.
Effective paragraphs have four main
characteristics:
A topic sentence
Supporting ideas for a clear/full
development
Concluding sentence
All are connected through cohesive devices
PARAGRAPH WRITING CONTD
Transitions within paragraphs
Paragraph unity-words, phrases and
illustrations focus on the central idea
Paragraph coherence-a paragraph is coherent
when it hangs together and flows smoothly in
a clear direction
Coherence is affected by choppy sentences
and use of insufficient transitions
Coherence is enhanced by repetition of key
words/phrases
PARAGRAPH WRITING CONTD
Transitions between paragraphs

Transitions show the movement from one

paragraph to another

They show how the paragraphs are

interrelated
PARAGRAPH WRITING CONTD
Types of transition words
Addition-And, Also, First, To begin with
Cause/Effect-Accordingly, As a result, Consequently,
Therefore
Comparison-Likewise, In like manner, In the same way, in
comparison
Contrast- But, however, In contrast, Nevertheless, On the
contrary
Example-For instance, For example, To illustrate,
Specifically
Insistence-In fact, Indeed
Restatement-In other words, Put differently, In short
Conclusion/summary-To conclude, After all, In brief, On the
whole
METHODS OF PARAGRAPH
DEVELOPMENT
Descriptive
Something you saw so that readers can
imagine the scene/person/object- the walls
of Great Zimbabwe/AN ABUSIVE HUSBAND

requires a series of detailed observation

METHODS OF DVPNT CONTD
Explanatory/exposition

a comprehensive description and explanation

of an idea or theory E.G THE NATURE OF
LEGAL LANGUAGE
METHODS OF DVPNT CONTD
Narrative
Contains characters, a setting, a conflict &
events in a particular order ESP WHEN
CLIENTS ARE TELLING THEIR STORIES

Very relevant for History, Literature and RE

for instance

Also relevant when narrating an experiment

e.g. Language experiments with Chimps.
METHODS OF DVPNT CONTD
Comparison/contrast

Two or more entities are

compared/contrasted based on a clear
criteria/criterion (LEGAL LANGUAGE Vs PLAIN
LANGUAGE)

Criteria: noise- John (quiet), Peter (noisy)

METHODS OF DVPNT CONTD
Cause/effect

Explains the link between cause & effect

Explains how a certain action/behaviour has

an effect on something
METHODS OF DVPNT CONTD
Process analysis

Details how a process happens, in steps &

with illustrations where appropriate

Can explain how a process can be

enhanced/improved/stopped
METHODS OF DVPNT CONTD
General to particular

What inflation does/ its causes in general

What caused inflation/ what it did to a

particular country
METHODS OF DVPNT CONTD
Particular to general

The opposite of the above

However, most of these methods are mixed

in natural combinations. Narration for
instance, frequently involved description!
ACADEMIC ARGUMENT
What is argument (Fulwiler & Hayakawa, 2009)
Deeply rooted in American political & social
system where free & open debate are part of
its democratic processes
Argument is also at the heart of the academic
process
Argument is rational disagreement than
quarrels/contests
Argument involves how 1 interprets a topic
The purpose of argument is to persuade others
to accept a particular point of view
STRUCTURE OF ARGUMENT
Thesis (major claim in an essay) vs.
antithesis =synthesis (the third position
arrived at after considering both sides
Claim- a statement/assertion that something
is true/right/correct
Counterclaim- statements that
oppose/refute claims (refutations)
Evidence what makes the claim believable-
facts, egs, testimony, scholarly views that
support claim
ARGUMENT CONTD
ROGERIAN ARGUMENT (Carl Rogers) (Troyka,
2000)
Communication is eased when pple find
common ground to their points of view
The argument follows a classical pattern with
a series of paragraphs as follows:
Thesis statement
Background information
Reasons/Evidence
Objections/refutations
Concluding paragraph
ARGUMENT CONTD
Toulmins model (Troyka, 2000)
Is more popular and one paragraph deals
with one argument/sub-argument/sub-claim
with the following elements:
Claim
Support
Counter argument
conclusion
CONCLUSION
Effective writing means:

Clear & effective language use

Having clear purpose and logical organisation
Strong argument & convincing evidence
Having sharp details
Having an inviting opening and a satisfying
conclusion (Fulwiler & Hayakawa, 2009)
REFERENCES
Arnaudet, M. & Barrett, ME. 1994. Approaches to
Academic Reading and Writing. New Jersey: Prentice
Hall.
Clayton, V. 2015. The needless complexity of
academic writing: A new movement strives for
simplicity in The Atlantic, 0ctober 2015.
Fulwiller, J, & Hayakawa, L. 2009. The Blair Handbook
of Academic Writing. University of Penguin: Chicago.
Pak-tao Ng, P. 2008. Effective Writing: A Guide for
Social Science Students. Chinese University Press:
Hong Kong.
Troyka, L. Q. 2000. Simon and Schuster Handbook for
Writers. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.
 Enjoy your writing

THANK YOU!