Stats Chapter 2

Summarizing and Graphing
Chapter 2
Outline
2-1 Review and Preview
2-2 Frequency Distributions
2-3 Histograms
2-4 Graphs That Enlighten and Graphs
That Deceive
Spring 2017 Math 115 / Statistics Chapter 2 / Page 2

Introduction
IQ data from children that lived near a
lead smelter based on the amount of
lead found in their blood
Low, medium and high levels of lead
Low (78 children)

Review and Preview
Characteristics of Data
Center
A representative value that indicates where the
middle of the data set is located
Variation
A measure of the amount that the data values
vary
Review and Preview
Characteristics of Data
Distribution
The nature or shape of the spread of data over the
range of values
Bell-shaped, uniform, or skewed
Outliers
Sample values that lie very far away from the vast
majority of other sample values
Time
Changing characteristics of the data over time
Review and Preview
Time
In the US 100 years ago
8% of homes had a telephone
14% of homes had a bathtub
The mean life expectancy was 47 years
The mean hourly wage was 22 cents
There were approximately 230 murders in the entire
US
Statistical analysis should always consider
changing population characteristics
Review and Preview
Be careful of what you believe
Why do you believe what you believe?
Sources?
Legitimate?
Questionable?
Agenda?
https://www.ted.com/talks/hans_and_ola_rosli
ng_how_not_to_be_ignorant_about_the_worl
d
Frequency Distributions
When working with large data sets
It is often helpful to organize and summarize
data by constructing a table called a
frequency distribution
Because computer software and calculators
can generate frequency distributions
The details of constructing them are not as
important as what they tell us about data sets
Still need to know how to derive them!!
Frequency Distribution (or Frequency
Table)
Shows how a data set is partitioned among
all of several categories (or classes) by
listing all of the categories along with the
number (frequency) of data values in each
of them

To organize quantitative data
We group the observations into classes
Classes
Categories or bins for grouping data
Once in classes, we can construct

Frequency distributions
Relative-frequency distributions

Reasons for Constructing Frequency
Distributions
1. Large data sets can be summarized
2. We can analyze the nature of data
3. We have a basis for constructing
important graphs

Lower Class Limits
The smallest numbers that can belong to a
class
IQ Score Frequency
50-69 2
70-89 33
Lower Class Limits 90-109 35
110-129 7
130-149 1
Upper Class Limits
The largest numbers that can belong to a
class
IQ Score Frequency
50-69 2
70-89 33
Upper Class Limits 90-109 35
110-129 7
130-149 1
Class Boundaries
The numbers used to separate classes, but
without the gaps created by class limits
IQ Score Frequency
49.5
50-69 2
69.5
70-89 33
Class Boundaries 89.5 90-109 35
109.5
110-129 7
129.5
130-149 1
149.5
Class Midpoints
The values in the middle of the classes and can be
found by averaging the lower and upper limits
Adding the class upper limit to the class lower limit and
dividing the sum by 2 IQ Score Frequency
(50 + 69) / 2 = 119 / 2 = 59.5 50-69 2
(70 + 89) / 2 = 159 / 2 = 79.5 70-89 33
(90 + 109) / 2 = 199 / 2 = 99.5 90-109 35
(110 + 129) / 2 = 239 / 2 = 119.5 110-129 7
(130 + 149) / 2 = 279 / 2 = 139.5 130-149 1
Class Width
The difference between two consecutive
lower class limits or two consecutive lower
class boundaries IQ Score Frequency
70 50 = 20 50-69 2
90 70 = 20 70-89 33
110 90 = 20 90-109 35
130 110 = 20 110-129 7
150 130 = 20 130-149 1
IQ Score Frequency
50-69 2
70-89 33
90-109 35
Frequency Distributions 110-129
130-149
7
Constructing A Frequency Distribution

1. Determine the number of classes
Should be between 5 and 20
We choose 5 (could be 10)
2. Calculate the class width
Round up
(maximum value) (minimum value)

class width
(141 - 50) / 5 = 91 / 5 = number
18.2 of classes
Choose 20 (rounded up)
IQ Score Frequency
50-69 2
70-89 33
90-109 35
130-149
7

3. Starting point
Choose the minimum data value
Or a convenient value below it as the first lower class limit
Choose 50
4. Using the first lower class limit and class
width
Proceed to list the other lower class limits
50, 70, 90, 110 and 130

IQ Score Frequency
50-69 2
70-89 33
90-109 35
130-149
7

5. List the lower class limits in a vertical
column and proceed to enter the upper
class limits
69, 89, 109, 129 and 149
6. Take each individual data value and put a
tally mark in the appropriate class
Add the tally marks to get the frequency

IQ Score Frequency
50-69 2
70-89 33
90-109 35
130-149
7

6. Take each individual data value and put a
tally mark in the appropriate class
Add the tally marks to get the frequency
50 69: 2
70 89: 33
90 109: 35
110 129: 7
130 149: 1
Total = 78
Relative Frequency
The ratio of the frequency of a
class to the total number of observations
Relative Frequency = Frequency / Total
Number of Observations

Relative Frequency Distribution
Includes the same class limits as a
frequency distribution
But the frequency of a class is replaced with
relative frequencies
A proportion or a percentage frequency (a percent)
class frequency
relative frequency =
sum of all frequencies

A listing of the district values and their relative
frequencies
Provide a table of the values of the observations
and (relatively) how often then occur
To obtain a relative-frequency distribution
We find a frequency distribution
Then divide each frequency by the total number of
observations

IQ Score Frequency Relative
Frequency
50-69 2 2.6%
70-89 33 42.3%
90-109 35 44.9%
110-129 7 9.0%
130-149 1 1.3%

Example
Days to Maturity for Short-Term
Investments
Organize this
data into frequency
and
relative-frequency
distributions

36 38 39 47 50 51 51 53 55 55
56 57 60 62 63 64 64 65 66 67
68 69 70 70 70 71 75 78 79 80
81 83 85 86 87 89 95 98 99 99
Days to Maturity for Short-Term Investments
Frequency Distribution
Columns 1 and 3
Relative-frequency Distribution
Columns 1 and 4

36 38 39 47 50 51 51 53 55 55
56 57 60 62 63 64 64 65 66 67
68 69 70 70 70 71 75 78 79 80
81 83 85 86 87 89 95 98 99 99
Days to Tally Number of Frequency Relative Relative Relative
maturity investments frequency frequency frequency
(fraction) (decimal) (percentage)
30 D 39 III 3 3 3 / 40 0.0750 7.50%
40 D 49 I 1 1 1 / 40 0.0250 2.50%
50 D 59 IIIIIIII 8 8 8 / 40 0.2000 20.00%
60 D 69 IIIIIIIIII 10 10 10 / 40 0.2500 25.00%
70 D 79 IIIIIII 7 7 7 / 40 0.1750 17.50%
80 D 89 IIIIIII 7 7 7 / 41 0.1750 17.50%
90 D 99 IIII 4 4 4 / 40 0.1000 10.00%
40 40 40 / 40 = 1 1.0000 100.00%

Example
Weights of 18 to 24-Year-Old Males
Organize this data into frequency and relative-
frequency 129.2 185.3 218.1 182.5 142.8
distributions 155.2 170.0 151.3 187.5 145.6
First lower class limit: 120 167.3 161.0 178.7 165.0 172.5
Class width of 20 191.1 150.7 187.0 173.7 178.2
161.7 170.1 165.8 214.6 136.7
278.8 175.6 188.7 132.1 158.5
146.4 209.1 175.4 182.0 173.6
149.9 158.6
Weights of 18-24-Year-Old Males
129.2 185.3 218.1 182.5 142.8 Relative
Weight (lb) Frequency
155.2 170.0 151.3 187.5 145.6 Frequency
167.3 161.0 178.7 165.0 172.5 120 W < 140 3 0.081
191.1 150.7 187.0 173.7 178.2 140 W < 160 9 0.243
161.7 170.1 165.8 214.6 136.7 160 W < 180 14 0.378
278.8 175.6 188.7 132.1 158.5 180 W < 200 7 0.189
146.4 209.1 175.4 182.0 173.6 200 W < 220 3 0.081
149.9 158.6
Frequency Distribution 220 W < 240 0 0.000
Columns 1 and 2 240 W < 260 0 0.000
260 W < 280 1 0.027
37 1.000
Columns 1 and 3

Recall
Frequency
The number of observations that fall in a class
Count
A listing of all classes and their frequencies
Single Value Class
Each class represents a single possible value
Usually a small number of distinct values
The X (horizontal) axis does not have ranges
Only single values

Example
TVs per Household
Organize this data
into frequency and
relative-frequency
distributions

TVs per Household
Columns 1 and 2
Columns 1 and 3

Gaps
The presence of gaps can show that we
have data from two or more different
populations
However, the converse is not true
Because data from different populations do not
necessarily result in gaps

Gaps
Example
Weights of
Pennies
Frequency
distribution of
randomly
selected
pennies

Gaps
Example
Pennies made before 1983 are 95% copper
and 5% zinc
Pennies made after 1983 are 2.5% copper and
97.5% zinc
Conclusion
The presence of gaps can suggest the data are
from two or more different populations
Frequency distributions - qualitative data
One way of organizing qualitative data is to
construct a table that gives the number of times
each distinct value occurs
The number of times each value occurs is its frequency
(or count)
Is a listing of the distinct values
And their frequencies
Provides a table of the values of the observations
And how often they occur

To Construct a Frequency Distribution
1. List the distinct values of the observations
in the first column of a table
2. For each observation
Place a tally mark in the second column in the
row of the appropriate distinct value
Cross out the observation
3. Count the tallies for each distinct value
Record the totals in the third column
Example
Political Party Affiliation
Construct a Frequency Distribution

1. List the distinct values of the observations
in the first column of a table

2. For each observation
Place a tally mark in the second column in the
row of the appropriate distinct value

3. Count the tallies for each distinct value
Record the totals in the third column

Interpretation
40 students are in the class
13 are Democrats, 18 are Republicans and 9 are
Other
By looking at frequency distributions

We can obtain useful information
Example: More students are Republican than
any other political party affiliation
Example
Determine the
Relative-Frequency Distribution
1.Obtain a frequency distribution of the data
From the first and third columns
We have the distinct values and their frequencies

2. Divide each frequency by
the total number of observations

Interpretation
32.5% are Democrats
45.0% are Republicans
22.5% are Other
Relative- frequency distributions are better
then frequency distributions
For comparing two (or more) data sets
Why?
Cumulative Frequency Distribution
IQ Score Frequency Cumulative
Frequency
Cumulative Frequencies
50-69 2 2
70-89 33 35
90-109 35 70
110-129 7 77
130-149 1 78

Histograms
A histogram is
A visual tool that helps analyze the shape of a
distribution of data
A graph consisting of bars of equal width
drawn adjacent to each other
Unless there are gaps in the data
The horizontal scale represents the classes of
quantitative data values and the vertical scale
represents the frequencies
Histograms
Histogram
The heights of the bars correspond to the
frequency values
The frequency of each class is represented by a
vertical bar whose height is equal to the frequency
of the class
A histogram is a graph of a frequency
distribution
A graph of the values of the observations and how
often they occur
Histograms
Relative-frequency Histogram
A graph that displays the classes on the
horizontal axis and the relative
frequencies of the classes on the vertical
axis
The relative frequency of each class is
represented by a vertical bar whose height
is equal to the relative frequency of the
class

Histograms
Relative-frequency Histogram
The only difference is the height of each
bar (the Y or vertical value)
The height of each bar is equal to the
relative frequency of each class instead of
the frequency of each class
The general shapes are the same because
the frequencies and the relative
frequencies are proportional
Histograms
Example - Histogram
IQ Score Frequency
50-69 2
70-89 33
90-109 35
110-129 7
130-149 1

Histograms
Relative Frequency Histogram
Has the same shape and horizontal scale
as a histogram, but the vertical scale is
marked with relative frequencies instead
of actual frequencies
IQ Score Relative Relative
Frequency Frequency
50-69 0.0256 2.56%
70-89 0.4231 42.31%
90-109 0.4487 44.87%
110-129 0.0897 8.97%
130-149
Spring 2017 0.0128 1.28% Math 115 / Statistics Chapter 2 / Page 52
Histograms
Example
Construct frequency and relative frequency
histograms for
Number of televisions per household
Days to maturity for short term investments
Weights of 18- to 24-year-old males

Histograms
TVs per Household/Single Valued Grouping

Histograms
Television Sets per Household
18 16
16 14
14 12
12
Frequency
10
8
6
3
4 2 2
1
2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Number of TVs

Histograms
Television Sets per Household
0.35 0.320
0.30 0.280
Relative Frequency
0.240
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10 0.060
0.020 0.040 0.040
0.05
0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Number of TVs

Histograms
Investments/Limit Grouping

Histograms
Short-Term Investments
10
10
9 8
8 7 7
7
Frequency
6
5 4
4 3
3
2 1
1
0
35 45 55 65 75 85 95
Days to maturity

Histograms
Short-Term Investments
0.250
0.25
0.200
Relative Frequency
0.20 0.175 0.175
0.15
0.100
0.10 0.075
0.05 0.025
0.00
35 45 55 65 75 85 95
Days to maturity

Histograms
Weights of 18- to 24-year-old Males
Relative
Weight (lb) Frequency
Frequency
120 W < 140 3 0.081
140 W < 160 9 0.243
160 W < 180 14 0.378
180 W < 200 7 0.189
200 W < 220 3 0.081
220 W < 240 0 0.000
240 W < 260 0 0.000
260 W < 280 1 0.027
37 1.000
Histograms

Histograms

Histograms
Some questions about distributions
What is the shape of this distribution?
What is the center?
How much variation is in the data?
Are there any outliers?

Histograms
Skewness
A distribution of data is skewed if it is not
symmetric and extends more to one side to
the other
Data skewed to the right have a longer right tail
Positively skewed or right skewed
Data skewed to the left have a longer left tail
Negatively skewed or left skewed

Histograms
Examples of skewness

Histograms
Distribution of a Data Set
Table, graph, or formula that provides the
values of the observations and how often
they occur
Example
Heights of 3,264 female students
With bell shaped curve
Histograms

Histograms
Interpreting Histograms
Objective is not simply to construct a histogram
But rather to
understand
something about
the data
Shape
Center
Spread
Modes
Outliers

Histograms
The author calls it CVDOT
C Center
V Variation
D Distribution
OT Outliers

Histograms
Normal distribution
Frequencies start low
Then increase to one or
two high frequencies
Then decrease to a low frequency
The distribution is approximately symmetric
Frequencies preceding the maximum being roughly
a mirror image of those that follow the maximum

Histograms

Histograms
Household Size
Identify the distribution

Histograms
Histogram for a cumulative distribution
Recall: Low Lead Level
Cumulative
Cumulative Relative
Frequency Frequency
Frequency
50 - 69 2 2 0.0256 0.0256
70 - 89 33 35 0.4231 0.4487
90 - 109 35 70 0.4487 0.8974
110 - 129 7 77 0.0897 0.9872
130 - 149 1 78 0.0128 1.0000
Total 78 1

Histograms
Histogram for a cumulative relative
distribution
Recall: Low Lead Level
Cumulative
Cumulative Relative
Frequency Frequency
Frequency
50 - 69 2 2 0.0256 0.0256
70 - 89 33 35 0.4231 0.4487
90 - 109 35 70 0.4487 0.8974
110 - 129 7 77 0.0897 0.9872
130 - 149 1 78 0.0128 1.0000
Total 78 1

Histograms
Recall
Population data
The values of a variable for the entire
population
Population distribution
Sample data
The values of a variable for a sample of the
population
Sample distribution
Histograms
Simulation
Household
Size
Samples
of 100
households

Histograms
Population and Sample Distributions
We usually do not know the population
distribution
However
We can use the distribution of the simple random
sample from the population to get a rough idea of the
population distribution

Histograms
Population and Sample Distributions
For a simple random sample
The sample distribution approximates the
population distribution
The distribution of the variable under consideration
The larger the sample size
The better the approximation tends to be

Histograms
Many methods we will use later in the text
require that the sample data must be from
a population with a normal distribution
A normal quantile plot can be interpreted on
the following criteria
Normal Distribution
Points are reasonably close to a straight line
Not a Normal Distribution
Points not reasonably close to a straight line or the points show
some systemic pattern that is not straight

Histograms
Examples

Histograms
Comparing 2 data sets
Frequency distributions (Low and High
Lead Level)
Low Lead Level - Sorted
50 56 70 72 73 74 75 76 76 76 76 76 77 77 78 80
80 80 84 85 85 85 85 86 86 86 86 87 87 88 88 88
89 89 89 91 92 93 94 94 94 95 96 96 96 96 96 96
96 97 97 98 99 99 99 99 100 101 101 102 104 104 105 105
106 107 107 107 107 108 111 115 115 118 120 125 128 141
High Lead Level - Sorted

75 75 76 79 80 80 80 82 83 85 85 88 88 88 89 93
94 96 101 104 104

High Lead Level - Sorted
75 75 76 79 80 80 80 82 83 85 85 88 88 88 89 93
94 96 101 104 104
Histograms
Low Lead Level - Sorted
50 56 70 72 73 74 75 76 76 76 76 76 77 77 78 80
80 80 84 85 85 85 85 86 86 86 86 87 87 88 88 88
89 89 89 91 92 93 94 94 94 95 96 96 96 96 96 96
96 97 97 98 99 99 99 99 100 101 101 102 104 104 105 105
106 107 107 107 107 108 111 115 115 118 120 125 128 141

Frequency distributions (Low and High
Lead Level)
Low Lead Relative High Lead Relative
IQ Score Percent IQ Score Percent
Frequency Frequency Frequency Frequency
50 - 69 2 0.0256 2.56% 50 - 69 0.0000 0.00%
70 - 89 33 0.4231 42.31% 70 - 89 14 0.7000 70.00%
90 - 109 35 0.4487 44.87% 90 - 109 6 0.3000 30.00%
110 - 129 7 0.0897 8.97% 110 - 129 0.0000 0.00%
130 - 149 1 0.0128 1.28% 130 - 149 0.0000 0.00%
Total 78 1 100.00% Total 20 1 100.00%

Low Lead Relative High Lead Level - Sorted
IQ Score Percent
Frequency Frequency 75 75 76 79 80 80 80 82 83 85 85 88 88 88 89 93
50 - 69 2 0.0256 2.56% 94 96 101 104 104
70 - 89 33 0.4231 42.31%
90 - 109 35 0.4487 44.87%
Histograms
110 - 129 7 0.0897 8.97%
130 - 149 1 0.0128 1.28%
Total 78 1 100.00%
High Lead Relative
IQ Score Percent
Low Lead Level - Sorted Frequency Frequency
50 56 70 72 73 74 75 76 76 76 76 76 77 77 78 80 50 - 69 0.0000 0.00%
80 80 84 85 85 85 85 86 86 86 86 87 87 88 88 88 70 - 89 14 0.7000 70.00%
89 89 89 91 92 93 94 94 94 95 96 96 96 96 96 96 90 - 109 6 0.3000 30.00%
96 97 97 98 99 99 99 99 100 101 101 102 104 104 105 105 110 - 129 0.0000 0.00%
106 107 107 107 107 108 111 115 115 118 120 125 128 141 130 - 149 0.0000 0.00%
Total 20 1 100.00%

Frequency histograms (Low and High Lead
Level)

Low Lead Relative High Lead Level - Sorted
IQ Score Percent
Frequency Frequency 75 75 76 79 80 80 80 82 83 85 85 88 88 88 89 93
50 - 69 2 0.0256 2.56% 94 96 101 104 104
70 - 89 33 0.4231 42.31%
90 - 109 35 0.4487 44.87%
Histograms
110 - 129 7 0.0897 8.97%
130 - 149 1 0.0128 1.28%
Total 78 1 100.00%
High Lead Relative
IQ Score Percent
Low Lead Level - Sorted Frequency Frequency
50 56 70 72 73 74 75 76 76 76 76 76 77 77 78 80 50 - 69 0.0000 0.00%
80 80 84 85 85 85 85 86 86 86 86 87 87 88 88 88 70 - 89 14 0.7000 70.00%
89 89 89 91 92 93 94 94 94 95 96 96 96 96 96 96 90 - 109 6 0.3000 30.00%
96 97 97 98 99 99 99 99 100 101 101 102 104 104 105 105 110 - 129 0.0000 0.00%
106 107 107 107 107 108 111 115 115 118 120 125 128 141 130 - 149 0.0000 0.00%
Total 20 1 100.00%

Relative frequency histograms (Low and
High Lead Level)

Histograms
When comparing data sets
Use relative frequency distributions and
relative histograms

Histograms
Relative-frequency histograms are
better for comparing two quantitative
data sets
Why?

Histograms

Graphs That Enlighten and
Graphs That Deceive
This section discusses other types of
statistical graphs
Our objective is to identify a suitable
graph for representing the data set
The graph should be effective in revealing
the important characteristics of the data

Graphs That Deceive
Some graphs are bad in the sense that
they contain errors
Some are bad because they are
technically correct, but misleading
It is important to develop the ability to
recognize bad graphs and identify
exactly how they are misleading

Graphs That Deceive
Scatterplot or Scatter Diagram
A plot of paired (x, y) quantitative data with a
horizontal x-axis and a vertical y-axis
Used to determine
whether there is a
relationship between
the two variables
Males
x is waist circumference (cm)
y is arm circumference (cm)

Graphs That Deceive
Scatterplot or Scatter Diagram
What would no relationship look like?
Nonlinear?
A linear but negative relationship?
Recall our test for normalcy

Graphs That Deceive
Clusters and a Gap
Recall
The weight of 72 pennies
Two clusters
Separated by a gap
May erroneously conclude
There is a relationship between
the weight of a penny and the year it was made
No apparent relationship and the year
Apparent relationship with the makeup
Pre-1983: 97% copper and 3% zinc
Post-1983: 3% copper and 97% zinc

Graphs That Deceive
Time-Series Graph
Data that have been collected at different
points in time
Time-series
data
Yearly high
values of the
Dow Jones
Industrial
Average

Graphs That Deceive
Dotplots
A graph that displays the range of values
on the horizontal axis and dots represent
the data points
Each dot is placed immediately above the
value it which is corresponds
Dots are stacked (from bottom to top) if
values are duplicated

Graphs That Deceive
To Construct a Dotplot
1. Draw a horizontal axis
That displays the possible values of the
quantitative data
2. Record each observation
By pacing a dot over the appropriate value on
the horizontal axis
3. Label the horizontal axis with the name of
the variable
Graphs That Deceive 197
199
Example 199
199
Prices of DVD Players 208
209
Construct a Dotplot 210
210
212
212
214
215
219
219
Sorted List 219
(Not required) 224
197
199
Graphs That Enlighten and 199

199
Graphs That Deceive 208

209
210
Prices of DVD Players 210
212
Dot Plot 212
214
215
219
219
219
224

Graphs That Deceive
Dotplot
Consists of a graph in which each data
value is plotted as a point (or dot) along a
scale of values
Dots representing equal values are stacked

199 200 202 203 207 208 208 209 210 210 210 210 212 213 214 215 217 218 218 221

Graphs That Deceive
Stem-and-leaf diagrams
A list of numbers organized into Stems (on the Left)
and Leaves (on the Right) separated by a vertical
line
Row of leaves
The most significant digits are the Stems
The least significant digits are Leaves
The Stems are in increasing order
From top to bottom
Leaves are in increasing order
From left to right
X X X
199 200 202 203 207 208 208 209 210 210 210 210 212 213 214 215 217 218 218 221

Graphs That Deceive
To construct a stem-and-leaf diagram
1. Think of each observation as a stem 199
200 2 3 7 8 8 9
Consisting of all but the rightmost digit 210 0 0 0 2 3 4 5 7 8 9
And a leaf, the rightmost digit 221
2. Write the stems from the smallest to largest in a

vertical column to the left of a vertical rule
3. Write each leaf to the right of the vertical rule in
the row that contains the appropriate stem
4. Arrange the leaves in each row in ascending
order
Graphs That Deceive
36 38 39 47 50 51 51 53 55 55
56 57 60 62 63 64 64 65 66 67
68 69 70 70 70 71 75 78 79 80
81 83 85 86 87 89 95 98 99 99
Example
Investments
Construct a
stem-and-leaf
diagram

Graphs That Deceive
36 38 39 47 50 51 51 53 55 55
56 57 60 62 63 64 64 65 66 67
68 69 70 70 70 71 75 78 79 80
81 83 85 86 87 89 95 98 99 99
Stems | Leaves Stems | Leaves
not ordered stem-and-leaf stem-and-leaf

Graphs That Deceive
Stemplot or stem-and-leaf plot

199
2002
02
203
207
208 Graphs That Deceive
208
209 Example
210
210
Cholesterol Levels
2102 Construct sorted
10 stem-and-leafs with
212
213 a. One line of leaves
214 per stem
215 0-9
217 b. Two lines of leaves
218 per stem
218
0 4 and 5 - 9
221
199
200
202
203
207
208 Graphs That Deceive
208
209 Cholesterol Levels
210 a. One line of leaves per stem
210
210 0-9
210 b. Two lines of leaves per stem
212 0 4 and 5 - 9
213
214
215
217
218
218
221
Graphs That Deceive
Stem-and Leaf
Advantages
Similar to Histogram
Shows Raw Data
Disadvantages
Not useful for a large data set
Awkward with data containing many digits

Graphs That Deceive
Pie Chart
Consists of a disk divided into wedge-shaped
pieces
Each proportional to its relative frequency
To construct a pie chart
1.Obtain the relative-frequency distribution
2.Divide a disk into wedge-shaped pieces proportional
to the relative frequencies
3.Label the slices with the distinct values and their
relative frequencies (or percents)
Graphs That Deceive
Example
Construct a Pie Chart
1. Obtain the relative-frequency distribution

Graphs That Deceive
Construct a Pie Chart
2. Divide a disk into
wedge-shaped pieces
proportional to the relative
frequencies
3. Label the slices with the
distinct values and their
relative frequencies
Percentages
Graphs That Deceive
Pie Chart
What contributes most to happiness?
Coca-Cola Survey
12,500 respondents

Graphs That Deceive
Pareto Chart
A bar graph for qualitative data
With the bars
arranged in
descending
order according
to frequencies
Coca-Cola Survey

Graphs That Deceive
Bar Graph
Uses bars of equal width to show frequencies of
categorical, or qualitative, data
Vertical scale represents frequencies or relative
frequencies
Horizontal scale identifies the different categories of
qualitative data
A multiple bar graph has two or more sets of
bars and is used to compare two or more data
sets
Graphs That Deceive
Bar Charts
Distinct values on the horizontal axis
Relative frequencies (or percents) on the
vertical axis
The bar height is equal to the relative frequency
The bars should not touch each other

Graphs That Deceive
Bar Charts
To construct a bar chart
And a vertical axis
3. For each distinct value
Construct a vertical bar whose height equals the relative
frequency
4. Label the bars with the distinct values
The horizontal axis with the name of the variable and the
vertical axis with Relative Frequency

Graphs That Deceive
Example
Construct a Bar Chart

Graphs That Deceive
Construct a Bar Chart
And a vertical axis
3. For each distinct value
Construct a vertical bar whose 45.0%
height equals the relative
frequency 32.5%
4. Label the bars with the 22.5%

distinct values
The horizontal axis with the
name of the variable and the
vertical axis with Relative
Frequency

Graphs That Deceive
45.0%
32.5%
22.5%

Graphs That Deceive
Example
Multiple
Bar
Graph
Median
income for
males and
females
by year

Graphs That Deceive
Relative-frequency histogram vs. bar
chart
In a bar chart, the bars do not touch
Why?
Hint: What kind of data is represented?
Any other differences?

Graphs That Enlighten and IQ Score Frequency
Graphs That Deceive 50-69

70-89
2
33
90-109 35
Frequency Polygon 110-129

130-149
7
1
Uses line segments connected to points

directly
above class
midpoint
values

Graphs That Deceive
Relative Frequency Polygon
Uses relative frequencies (proportions or
percentages) for the vertical scale

Graphs That Deceive
Ogive
A line graph that depicts cumulative
frequencies
IQ Score Frequency Cumulative
Frequency
50-69 2 2
70-89 33 35
90-109 35 70
110-129 7 77
130-149 1 78
Graphs That Deceive
Nonzero Axis
Graphs can be misleading because one or
both of the axes begin at some value other
than zero
So that
differences
are
exaggerated

Graphs That Deceive
Pictographs
Drawings of objects
Three-dimensional objects - money bags, stacks
of coins, army tanks (for army expenditures),
people (for population sizes), barrels (for oil
production), and houses (for home construction)
are commonly used to depict data
These drawings can create false
impressions that distort the data

Graphs That Deceive
Pictographs
If you double each side of a square, the
area does not merely double; it increases
by a factor of four; if you double each side
of a cube, the volume does not merely
double; it increases by a factor of eight
Pictographs using areas and volumes can
therefore be very misleading

Graphs That Deceive
Pictographs
Consider
Mean salaries and education level
No high school diploma: $18,734
High school diploma: $27,915
Bachelor's degree: $51,206
Advanced degree: $74,602

Graphs That Deceive
Bars have
same width
Too busy
Too difficult
to understand

Graphs That Deceive
Misleading
Depicts one-dimensional data with three-
dimensional boxes
Last box is 64 times as large as first box
But income is only 4 times
as large

Graphs That Deceive
Fair, objective,
unencumbered
by distracting
features

Graphs That Deceive
Important Principles Suggested by
Edward Tufte
For small data sets of 20 values or fewer
Use a table instead of a graph
A graph of data should make the viewer
focus on the true nature of the data
Not on other elements, such as eye-catching
but distracting design features

Graphs That Deceive
Important Principles Suggested by
Edward Tufte
Do not distort data
Construct a graph to reveal the true nature of
the data
Almost all of the ink in a graph should be
used for the data
Not for the other design elements

Graphs That Deceive
Exercise
What is a frequency distribution of
qualitative data and why is it useful?
A frequency distribution of qualitative data is a
listing of the distinct values and their
frequencies
A frequency distribution is useful for organizing
qualitative data so that the data are more
compact and easier to understand

Graphs That Deceive
Exercise
Explain the difference between
a. Frequency and Relative Frequency
A frequency is the number of times a particular distinct
value occurs, whereas a relative frequency is a ratio of
a frequency to the total number of observations
b. Percentage and Relative Frequency
A percentage equals 100 times a relative frequency
Equivalently, a relative frequency is a percentage
expressed as a decimal

Graphs That Deceive
Exercise
Answer true or false to each of the statements
in parts (a) and (b)
And explain your reasoning
a. If two data sets that have identical frequency
distributions
They have identical relative frequency distributions
True

Graphs That Deceive
Exercise
If two data sets that have identical relative
frequency distributions
They have identical frequency distributions
False

Graphs That Deceive
Exercise
c. Use your answers to parts (a) and (b) to
explain why relative frequency
distributions are better than frequency
distributions for comparing two data sets
Relative frequencies always lie between 0
and 1 and hence provide a standard for
comparison

Graphs That Deceive
Exercise
Identify an important reason for grouping
data
Grouping can help to make a large and
complicated set of data more compact and
easier to understand

Graphs That Deceive
Exercise
Explain the difference between a frequency
histogram and a relative-frequency
histogram
A frequency histogram displays the class
frequencies on the vertical axis
A relative-frequency histogram displays the
class relative frequencies on the vertical axis

Review
This chapter covered organizing,
summarizing and graphing data sets
Important characteristics of a data set
Center
Variation
Distribution
Outliers
Any changing patterns over time

Review
Should be able to
Construct a frequency or relative frequency
distribution to summarize data
Construct a frequency or a relative frequency
histogram to show the distribution of the data
Examine a histogram or normal quantile plot
to determine whether the sample data
appear to be from a normal population

Review
Should be able to
Construct graphs of data using a
scatterplot, frequency polygon, dotplot,
stemplot, bar graph, multiple bar graph,
Pareto chart, pie chart, or time-serice graph
Critically analyze a graph to determine
whether if objectively depicts data or is
somehow misleading or incorrect

Stats Chapter 2

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Stats Chapter 2

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Summarizing and Graphing

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Once in classes, we can construct

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Frequency Distributions 110-129

Constructing A Frequency Distribution

(maximum value) (minimum value)

Frequency Distributions 110-129

Constructing A Frequency Distribution

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Frequency Distributions 110-129

Constructing A Frequency Distribution

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Frequency Distributions 110-129

Constructing A Frequency Distribution

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Relative Frequency Distribution

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By looking at frequency distributions

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0.20 0.175 0.175

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