HIGHWAY

ENGINEERING
RASYIDAH SOLEHAH BINTI MOHD FAUZI
( A149215 )
NOR SOFIA IZWA BINTI MOHD FAUZI
( A143932 )
NUR ANIS NAZRIAH BINTI NOOR ISMADI
( A150697 )
MUHAMMAD FIKRI BIN RAMLI ( A150465 )
SPOT SPEED
STUDIES
SPOT SPEED STUDIES

To estimate the distribution of speeds of vehicles in a

stream of traffic at a particular location on highway.
Speed of vehicle is defined as rate of movement of
vehicles. ( km/h)
Speed characteristics identified will be valid only for
traffic and environmental conditions that exist at time of
study.
 USED OF SPOT SPEED.
Establish parameters for traffic operation and control.

Evaluate effectiveness of traffic control devices.

Monitor the effect of speed enforcement programs.

Evaluate and determine the adequacy of highway geometric characteristics.

Evaluate the effect of speed on highway safety.

Determine speed trends.

Determine whether complaints about speeding are valid.

LOCATION FOR SPOT SPEED
STUDIES Different traffic
1. Basic data collection conditions on highway.
Highways.

Mid-blocks of urban
2. Speed trend analyses highways.
Straight, level sections
of rural highways.

3. Specific traffic
engineering problem. Any location.
TIME OF DAY AND DURATION

1. Purpose of study
Established posted speed limits.
Observe speed trends.
Collect basic data.

2. Conducted when traffic free-flowing ( off-peaks hour )

3. Selected period based on citizen complaints.
4. Duration is atleast 1 hour and sample size at least 30 vehicles.
( more data provide better indication )
 SAMPLE SIZE

Average speed : sum Median speed : speed Modal speed : speed

of all spot speeds at the middle value in value that occurs most
divided by number of series spot speeds. frequently in sample
recorded speeds. ( ascending order ) spot speeds.

Pace : range of speed,

th-percentile spot
usually taken at Standard deviation of
speed : spot speed
10km/h speed range speed : measure of the
value below which
that has largest spread of individual
percent of vehicles
number of speeds.
travel.
observations.
 AVERAGE SPEED

= arithmetic mean.
speed of th speed group.
number of observations in

each speed group. N = number of observed

values.
midvalue for th speed
group.
 STANDARD DEVIATIONS.

midvalue of speed class
frequency of speed class
= arithmetic mean.
N = number of observations.
VOLUME
4.2 VOLUME STUDIES
Traffic volume studies are conducted to collect data on the number of
vehicles and/or pedestrians that pass a point on a highway facility during a
specified time period.

When selecting locations for volume counts, it is important to note whether

upstream bottlenecks could be limiting flow into the location where the
count is being made.

If an upstream bottleneck exists, the observed traffic volume may be

less than the demand that would ideally like to use the roadway.
Characteristics of The Traffic Volume
Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT)
- Is the average of 24-hour counts collected every day. AADTs are used
in several traffic and transportation analyses for:
a)Estimation of highway user revenues
b)Computation of crash rates in terms of number of crashes per
100 million vehicle kms traveled
c)Establishment of traffic volume trends
d)Evaluation of the economic feasibility of highway projects
e)Development of freeway and major arterial street systems
f)Development of improvement and maintenance programs

Average Daily Traffic (ADT)

- Is the average of 24-hour counts collected over a number of days
greater than one but less than a year. ADTs may be used for

a) Planning of highway activities

b) Measurement of current demand
c) Evaluation of existing traffic flow
Peak Hour Volume (PHV)
- Is the maximum number of vehicles that pass a point on a highway
during a period of 60 consecutive minutes. PHVs are used for

a) Functional classification of highways

b) Design of the geometric characteristics of a highway ; for
example, number of lanes, intersection signalization, or
channelization
c) Capacity analysis
d) Development of programs related to traffic operations ; for
example, one-way street systems or traffic routing
e) Development of parking regulations
Vehicle Classification (VC)
- Record volume with respect to the type of vehicle for example,
passenger cars, two-axle trucks, or three-axle trucks. VC is used in:

a) Design of geometric characteristics, with particular

reference to turning-radii requirements, maximum
grades, lane widths, and so forth
b) Capacity analyses, with respect to passenger-car
equivalent of trucks
c) Adjustment of traffic counts obtained by machines
d) Structural design of highway pavements, bridges, and so
forth

Vehicle Kilometers of Travel (VKT)

- Is a measure of travel along a section of road. It is the product of the
traffic volume( that is, average weekday volume or ADT) and the length
of roadway in kilometers to which the volume is applicable. VKTs are used
mainly as a base for allocating resources for maintenance and
improvement of highways.
4.3 Methods For Conducting Spot Speed And
Volume Studies
Intrusive Methods
Intrusive methods and counters used for spot speed studies
can in general be used as intrusive methods for volume
counts.
These include pneumatic road tubes, piezoelectric sensors,
and inductive loops.
Pneumatic road tubes:
Used to collect data on speeds, volumes, and vehicle classification.

Piezoelectric sensor:
Used for traffic data collection consists of a mineral-based powder
that surrounds a solid copper wire at the center of the cable and
serves as the dielectric between the solid copper wire and the copper tube.
Inductive loop:
The system serves as the detector of a resonant circuit.
Primarily used for permanent installation since they must be installed
in the pavement.
 Nonintrusive Methods
Do not require the placing of sensors on or into the road pavement.
These sensor are usually located above the road, either at the center or
on side of the road.
Nonintrusive method include manual, microwave radar, video image
processing, ultrasonic, and passive acoustic technologies.

Manual methods:
Not commonly used, except for turning movements at intersections.
Only to counts at intersections.

Counting turning movements:

Used to conduct manual traffic volume counts at an intersection.
At intersections involves the use one or more persons recording
observed vehicles using a counter.
Microwave radar-based:
Traffic sensor work on the principle that when a signal is transmitted
onto a moving vehicle, the change is frequency between the
transmitted signal and the reflected signal is proportional to the
speed of the moving vehicle. .
Video image processing:
Referred to as machine vision and commonly referred to today as a video
detection system, usually consists of one or more cameras.
The electronic camera receives the images from the road; the microprocessor determine
the vehicles presence or passage.
This information is then used to determine the traffic characteristics in real time.
Ultrasonic devices:
A vehicle is detected when the time taken for the sound energy to return to the
device is less than that for the normal road surface background.
These devices are usually placed over the lane or traffic lanes on which data are to be
collected, and pulses of ultrasonic sound energy are emitted from the device to the passing
vehicle and reflected back to the device.
Passive acoustic technologies:
Microphones pointed toward the traffic stream. The
microphones detect the sound of a vehicle then identified by
comparing the sound detected with a set of programmed
sonic signatures.
The great advantage of nonintrusive methods over the use of
intrusive methods over the use of intrusive method is that it is
not necessary to physically install loops or any other type of
detector on the road.
 Intrusive methods

piezoelectric sensor
Pneumatic road tubes

inductive loop
 Nonintrusive methods

Forward looking mode Side fire mode the autoscope deployed

DENSITY
 Time-space Diagram
Relationship between the location of vehicles in a
traffic stream and time as the vehicles progress
along the highway.
Primary Element of Traffic Flow
Flow (q) Density (k) Speed (u)
Equivalent hourly rate Refer as The distance travel by
at which vehicles pass concentration. a vehicles during a
a point on a highway Number of vehicles unit of time.
during a time period travelling over a unit
less then 1 hour. length of highway at
an instant in time.

Time mean speed

Veh/h (vehicle per hour) veh/km (vehicle per km) Space meanper
Km/h (kms speed
hour)
Km/h (kilometres per
Veh/h (vehicle per hour) veh/km (vehicle per km) hour)
Km/h (kms per hour)
m/sec (meter per per
Km/h (kilometres
second)
hour)
m/sec (meter per
second)
 Flow-Density Relationships
General
equation :
Flow = density x space mean
speed
Depends on several factors :
Characteristic of the roadway
Characteristic of the vehicle
Characteristic of the driver
Environmental factors (weather)
Other relationships:
Space mean speed : flow x space
headway(distance between the front of
vehicle and the front of the following
vehicle,m)
Where
average space headway
Density = flow x travel time for unit
distance
Where is the average time for unit
distance
Average space headway = space mean
speed x average time headway.
Average time headway = average travel
time per unit distance x average space
headway

Occupancy
= the proportion of a specific data collection time interval
that vehicles are present in the detection zone.
Not assuming that the lengths of vehicles are approximately the
same:

Assuming similar lengths for vehicles:

Fundamental Diagram of Traffic Flow
Relationship between the density
(veh/km) and the corresponding
flow of traffic on a highway.

The following theory has been postulated with respect to the shape of the curve
depicting this relationship:
1. When the density on the highway is 0, the flow is also 0 because there are
no vehicles on the highway.
2. As the density increases, the flow also increases.
3. However, when the density reaches its maximum, generally referred to as
the jam density (), the flow must be 0 because vehicles will tend to line up
end to end.
4. It follows that as density increases from 0, the flow will also initially
increases from 0 to a maximum value. Further continuous in density then
result in continuous reduction of the flow, which will eventually be 0 when
the density is equal to the jam density.