RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

& STATISTICS
 DISCUSSION ON
What Research is and How it is defined
Distinguish between Applied & Basic Research
Meaning of Deduction and Induction
Research Process
Research Design
Survey of Literature
Hypothesis & Testing
Sampling & Data collection
Processing Data and Analyzing
Types of Research
Software packages for Statistical Analysis
Research Report
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 Meaning of Research
An organized, systematic, data-based,
critical, scientific inquiry or
investigation into a specific problem,
undertaken with the objective of
finding answers or solutions to it.
Must have a purpose
Undertaken to understand various
phenomena
To solve specific problem
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 Applied Research If the
purpose is to solve specific
problem currently faced by the
society
Basic Research To understand
various issues in a society that are
likely to crop up. Aim is not only to
solve the current problem but to
generate more understanding
about the various areas of interest.

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DEDUCTION is a form of inference in which we
go from a general statement to infer a
particular statement.
Premise 1 - All PhD students have research
skills
Premise 2 - Vingnesh is a PhD student
Conclusion - Therefore, Vignesh is a
researcher

For Deduction to be correct it must be both

true and valid.

Argument must have formal validity and the

premises must be true.
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INDUCTION - Arrive at a conclusion based
on a number of observations of specific
instances.

Conclusion explains the facts and the facts

support the conclusion.

Conclusions are tentative inferential jumps

beyond the evidence presented. They are
subject to further confirmation that can
become true only when more evidence is
gathered.

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 Deduction and Induction

Deduction

Induction
Scientific Method pursues a step-by-step,
logical, organized method to identify
problems, gather and analyze data and draw
valid conclusions.

1. Purposiveness and Rigor

2. Reliability
3. Validity
4. Objectivity
5. Generalizability
6. Accuracy and Precision
7. Parsimony
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The Research Process
 Purposes of Research

Exploration
gaining some familiarity with a topic, discovering some
of its main dimensions, and possibly planning more
structured research

Description
Census Bureaus report on number of Indian
Political poll predicting who will win an election
Anthropologists ethnographic account of a preliterate
tribe

Explanation
Take it one step further
 Research Musts

Problem must be clearly recognized

Determine information already available

and what further information is required, as
well as the best approach for obtaining it
Obtain and assess information objectively
to help inform the decision
 Six Phases of Research
1. Problem definition
2. Literature review
3. Selection of research design, subjects, and
data collection techniques
4. Data gathering
5. Data processing and analysis
6. Implications, Conclusions, and
Recommendations
 Problem Definition
Describe broader context (background)
State the objectives or purposes
Inform reader about the scope of the
study, including defining any terms,
limitations, or restrictions
Reduces potential criticisms

State the hypothesis (es)

 Literature Review

Gives theoretical rationale of problem being

studied, what research has been done and
how it relates to the problem
Helpful to divide the literature into sub-topics
for ease of reading
Quality of literature should be assessed

Be sure to include well respected individuals

in the research area (if they exist)
 Selection of Research
Design
The research design indicates the steps
that will need to be take and the sequence
they will occur
Each design can rely on one or more data
collection technique
Assess reliability and validity
Critical consideration in determining
methodology is the selection of subjects
 Data Gathering
Must pretest

Design the sampling scheme

Questionnaires must be coded

 Data processing and
analysis
Describe demographics of the data

Compare behavior (if applicable)

Choose appropriate statistical technique (if

applicable)

Look for patterns in data (if applicable)

 Interpreting the Results
Make sure to consider the audience

Discuss implications for the

population of interest and future
research
 Operational Definitions
Variables first defined by conceptual
definitions that explain the concept the
variable is trying to capture

Variables then defined by operational

definitions which are definitions for how
variable will be measured
 Language of Sampling

Population:
Population entire collection of people/things
Parameter:
Parameter # that results from measuring all units in
population
Sampling frame:
frame specific data from which sample is
drawn
Unit of analysis:
analysis type of object of interest
Sample:
Sample a subset of some of the units in the population
Statistic:
Statistic # that results from measuring all units in the
sample
 Unit of Analysis
Major entity you are analyzing in your study

It is the type of object that makes up each

data point

Individuals
Artifacts (books, photos, newspapers)
Geographical units
Social interactions
 Independent and Dependent
Variables

independent variable is dependent variable is

what is manipulated what is affected by the
independent variable
a treatment or program
or cause effects or outcomes

Factor Measure
 Research Design and
Methodology
In general, a research design is like a
blueprint for the research.

Research Methodology concerns how

the design is implemented, how the
research is carried out.
 A few designs

Cross-Sectional Design

Longitudinal Design

Time Series Design

Panel Design
 Cross-Sectional Design

A cross-sectional design is used for research that

collects data on relevant variables one time only
from a variety of people, subjects, or phenomena.

A cross-sectional designs provides a snapshot of

the variables included in the study, at one
particular point in time.

Cross-sectional designs generally use survey

techniques to gather data, for example, Indian
census.
 Advantages: data on many variables, data from a
large number of subjects, data from dispersed
subjects, data on attitudes and behaviors, good
for exploratory research, generates hypotheses
for future research, data useful to many different
researchers

Disadvantages: increased chances of error,

increased cost with more subjects and each
location, cannot measure change, cannot
establish cause and effect, no control of
independent variable, difficult to rule out rival
hypotheses, static
 Longitudinal Designs

A longitudinal design collects data over long

periods of time.

Measurements are taken on each variable

over two or more distinct time periods.

This allows the researcher to measure change

in variables over time.
 Time Series Design

A Time Series Design collects data on the

same variable at regular intervals in the form
of aggregate measures of a population.

Time series designs are useful for:

establishing a baseline measure
describing changes over time
keeping track of trends
forecasting future (short term) trends

 Advantages: data easy to collect, easy to present

in graphs, easy to interpret, can forecast short
term trends

Disadvantages: data collection method may

change over time, difficult to show more than one
variable at a time, needs qualitative research to
explain fluctuations, assumes present trends will
continue unchanged
 Panel Designs

Panel Designs collect repeated measurements

from the same people or subjects over time.

Panel studies reveal changes at the individual level.

Advantages: reveals individual level changes, establishes

time order of variables, can show how relationships
emerge

Disadvantages: difficult to obtain initial sample of

subjects, difficult to keep the same subjects over time,
repeated measures may influence subjects behavior
Types of Research
 Types of Research
Exploratory / Qualitative seeks to
discover new relationships.
Search of Secondary Data
Case Study
Conclusive / Quantitative designed
to help to choose among various
possible course action.
Descriptive Research
Experimentation

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 Case Study Method
Intensive study of a relatively small
number of situations.
Features which are common to all
cases in the general group
Features which are not common to all
cases, but are common to certain
sub-groups
Features which are unique to a
specific case
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Conclusions are formulated
from comparisons of these
similarities and differences.

Design of case studies will be

based on the specific objectives
of the study and is primarily a
question of good judgment in
selecting cases to be studied.
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Advantages of case study
Inferences are obtained from study of
an entire situation, an entity, rather
than from study of one or several
selected aspects alone.
Description of a real event or situation.
More accurate data are obtained,
longer intimate association, greater
rapport, reduced reliance on
formalized questions and answers.

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Disadvantages of case study
Difficult to describe the complete situations,
develop formal method of observations.
Lack of objectivity carries over into analysis
of case data. Analysis is based on intuition of
investigators.
Investigators inclined to generalize. Because
sample is usually very small, selected
subjectively and tendency exists to select
unusual cases, generalizations is dangerous.

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 The case study method has its greatest
value in exploratory research where
the objectives is to find hypotheses to
be tested by more formal research
methods. When data from a case
study are classified and summarized,
the study becomes statistical rather
than case in nature. When this so,
Statistical Methods should be used.

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 Descriptive Research is designed to describe
something characteristics of users given product,
degree with which product use varies with income, age,
sex, etc.
Statistical Method involves study of a few factors in
large number of cases and uses different methods of
analysis averages, percentages, measures of
dispersion and more sophisticated statistical procedures.
Experimental Research is the process in which one or
more variables are manipulated under conditions which
permit the collection of data which show the effects, if
any, of such variables in an unconfused fashion.
Laboratory Experiment is where the test subjects are
brought to a conference room and exposed to an
experimental variable, such as TV commercial.
Field Experiments, the variables are taken to the field
news product to houses, users, etc.
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 Descriptive Research
Research that describes what is, describing, recording,
analyzing, and interpreting conditions that exist

Involves some type of contrast and attempts to discover

relationships between non-manipulated variables

Research that provides and accurate portrayal of

characteristics of a particular individual, situation, or
group

Used as a means of discovering new meaning, describing

what exits, determining the frequency with which
something occurs, and categorizing information

The systematic investigation of relationships among two

or more variables, without determining or interpreting
cause and effect
 Experimental Research
describes what will be when certain
variables are carefully controlled or
manipulated

objective, systematic, controlled

investigation for the purpose of
predicting and controlling phenomena
and examining probability and
causality among selected variables
 Historical Research
Involves investigating, recording,
analyzing, and interpreting the events of
the past for the purpose of discovering
generalizations that are helpful in
understanding the past and the present,
and, to a limited extent, in anticipating
the future

Research involving analysis of events that

occurred in the remote or recent past
 Types of Research
Trochims Classifications
descriptive
e.g., percentage of regular exercisers
relational
e.g., link between age and exercise
causal
e.g., effect of behavior change intervention
on exercise participation
Data Collection Methods

Pros and Cons of Primary and

Secondary Data
 Where do data come from?
Weve seen our data for this lab, all
nice and collated in a database
from:
Insurance companies (claims,
medications, procedures, diagnoses,
etc.)
Firms (demographic data, productivity
data, etc.)
 Where do data come from?
Take a step back if were starting
from scratch, how do we collect / find
data?
Secondary data
Primary data
 Secondary Data
Secondary data data someone else
has collected
This is what you were looking for in your
assignment.
 Secondary Data Examples of
Sources
County health departments
Vital Statistics birth, death certificates
Hospital, clinic, school nurse records
Private and foundation databases
City and county governments
Surveillance data from state government
programs
Federal agency statistics - Census, NIH,
etc.
 Secondary Data
Limitations
What did you find on the frustrating
side as you looked for data on the
states websites?
 Secondary Data
Limitations
When was it collected? For how
long?
May be out of date for what you want to
analyze.
May not have been collected long
enough for detecting trends.
E.g. Have new anticorruption laws
impacted Russias government
accountability ratings?
 Secondary Data
Limitations
Is the data set complete?
There may be missing information on
some observations
Unless such missing information is
caught and corrected for, analysis will
be biased.
 Secondary Data
Limitations
Are there confounding problems?
Sample selection bias?
Source choice bias?
In time series, did some observations
drop out over time?
 Secondary Data
Limitations
Are the data consistent/reliable?
Did variables drop out over time?
Did variables change in definition over
time?
E.g. number of years of education versus
highest degree obtained.
 Secondary Data
Limitations
Is the information exactly what you need?
In some cases, may have to use proxy
variables variables that may approximate
something you really wanted to measure. Are
they reliable? Is there correlation to what you
actually want to measure?
E.g. gauging student interest in U.W. by their
ranking on FAFSA subject to gamesmanship.
 Secondary Data
Advantages
No need to reinvent the wheel.
If someone has already found the data,
take advantage of it.
 Secondary Data
Advantages
It will save you money.
Even if you have to pay for access, often
it is cheaper in terms of money than
collecting your own data. (more on this
later.)
 Secondary Data
Advantages
It will save you time.
Primary data collection is very time
consuming. (More on this later, too!)
 Secondary Data
Advantages
It may be very accurate.
When especially a government agency
has collected the data, incredible
amounts of time and money went into it.
Its probably highly accurate.
 Secondary Data
Advantages
It has great exploratory value
Exploring research questions and
formulating hypothesis to test.
 Primary Data
Primary data data you collect
 Primary Data - Examples
Surveys
Focus groups
Questionnaires
Personal interviews
Experiments and observational study
 Primary Data - Limitations
Do you have the time and money for:
Designing your collection instrument?
Selecting your population or sample?
Pretesting/piloting the instrument to
work out sources of bias?
Administration of the instrument?
Entry/collation of data?
 Primary Data - Limitations
Uniqueness
May not be able to compare to other
populations
 Primary Data - Limitations
Researcher error
Sample bias
Other confounding factors
 Data collection choice
What you must ask yourself:
Will the data answer my research
question?
 Data collection choice
To answer that
You much first decide what your
research question is
Then you need to decide what
data/variables are needed to
scientifically answer the question
 Data collection choice
If that data exist in secondary form,
then use them to the extent you can,
keeping in mind limitations.
But if it does not, and you are able to
fund primary collection, then it is the
method of choice.
 Types of Relationships
patterns of relationships
no relationship
positive relationship
negative relationship
curvilinear relationship
 + +

fitness
fitness

- -
vocabulary
- resting HR + - +
+ +
exercise intensity

performance

- -
- HR + - arousal +
 RESEARCH PROCESS
Research Problem
Identification and Statement of the Problem
Needs
Review of Related Literature
Review concepts, theories, and previous
Research finds
Leads to
Formulating Hypotheses
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 If necessary Proceeds to
Research Design
Decides sampling design, tool & Procedure
Facilitates
Data Collection
Enables
Data Analysis
Testing Hypothesis (if Necessary)
Helps
Interpretation
Comparing with previous findings
Suggests
Solution and Conclusion
Generalizations

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Statement of Problem
Usually implies that a controversy of
differences of opinion exists.
Problems can be derived from theory, prior
research results or personal observations
and experiences.
Important that the solution to the problem or
the answer to the questions can influence
education theory or practice.
Careful formulations and presentations of
the implications or possible applications of
knowledge help to give the project and
urgency, justifying its worth.

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 Review of Related Literature
Reports of studies of closely related problems
that have been investigated
Design of the study, including procedure
employed and data-gathering instruments
used
Populations what were sampled and sampling
methods employed
Various variables that were defined
Extraneous variables that could have affected
the findings
Faults that could have been avoided
Recommendations for further research

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The Hypothesis
Hypothesis is a testable statement of potential
relationship between two or more variables.
Hypothesis is an assumption to be proved or
disproved.
Hypothesis is a tentative answer to a question.
Formulation of hypothesis in advance of the
data gathering process is necessary for
unbiased investigations. A good hypothesis
Should be reasonable
Should be consistent with known facts or
theories
Should be stated in such a way that it can be
tested and found to be probably true or probably
false.
Should be stated in the simplest possible terms.
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 Designing Research
Research purpose may be groped into
Explorations, Descriptions, Diagnosis and
Experimentations.
Flexible design which provides opportunity for considering
many different aspects of problems is considered
appropriate, when the purpose of the study is exploration.
When purpose happens to be an accurate description of
situation or of an association between variables, the
suitable design will be one that minimizes and maximizes
the reliability of data collected and analyzed.
Experimental design either informal designs (before-and-
after without control, after only with control, before and
after with control) or formal designs (such as completely
randomized designs, randomized block designs, Latin
square designs, simple and complex factorial design) out
of which the researcher must select one for his project.

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Guidelines for Research Designs
Means of obtaining Information
Availability and Skills of the
Researcher
Organization and reasoning of way of
obtaining the Information
Time available for Research
Cost factor relating to Research

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Determining Sample Design
Sample Design is a definite plan determines
before any are actually collected for from the
population.
Samples can be either
Probability samples
Non-probability samples
Collecting the Data
By Observation
Through Personal Interviews
Through Telephone Interviews
By mailing Questioners
Through Schedules
Execution of the Project and Analysis of Data
Hypothesis testing
Preparation of the Report
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 Processing Data
Data processing is an intermediary stage of
work between data collection and data
interpretation.
Processing of data requires advance
planning. Cover such aspects identification
of variables, hypothetical relationship among
variables and tentative research hypotheses.
Editing is a process of checking to detect and
correct errors and omissions.
Codification and Classification of Data
Transcriptions of Data
Tabulation

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 Analyzing Data
Critical examination of assembled and
grouped data for studying the characteristics
of the object under study and for determining
the patterns of relationship among the
variables relating to it. Quantitative and Non-
quantitative methods are used.
Summarizes large mass of data into
understandable and meaningful form.
Makes exact descriptions possible
Facilitates identification of casual factors
underlying complex phenomena.
Aids the drawing of reliable inferences from
observational data.
Making estimations and generalizations from
the results of sample surveys.
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 Measures of Central Tendency
Measures of Dispersion
Measures of Association /
Relationship
Standard Error of the Estimate
Hypothesis Testing
ANOVA

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 Software
packages
SPSS Statistical Package for the
Social Sciences
SAS SAS Business Intelligence
provides the information needed in
required format.
R
STATA

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 Research Report
Purpose to convey the result in
sufficient details, so that new
findings or new methods of analysis
can be incorporated into the general
store of knowledge in the area of
research.

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 CONTENTS
Title
Table of contents
Synopsis
Introduction
Review of the Literature
Methodology
Discussion section
Recommendations and Implementations
References/ Bibliography
Appendix
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