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General Meteorology

CHAPTER 4
AIR PRESSURE & WINDS

December 2001

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Pressure

Balanced by
air pressure.
Gravity
But, the air
doesnt fall
down!!!

Pressure: Force due to gravity that the mass of


the atmosphere exerts on a unit area of surface.
2
Pressure
Barometers
Mercury barometer
Aneroid barometer (deformation)
Used in altimeters
3 mb/100 ft
Measuring the height of the Energy
Center

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Pressure

Air pressure can be thought of as the weight of a


column of air extending from the Earths surface
to the top of the atmosphere.
Vacuum

Mercury
Mercury Barometer:
Weight of the mercury
is balanced by the force h Pressure
of the air (pressure) on
the mercury in the dish.

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Pressure
Average sea-level pressure:
1013.2 mb 101.3 kPa
29.92 inches Hg 14.7 pounds per in2
760 mm of Hg 34 feet of water

Records (sea-level):
1078.3 mb in Siberia
877.2 mb in a Pacific Typhoon
Pressure

Altimeter Setting
996 mb

1000 mb
996 mb 500 ft

1004 mb

1008 mb

1000 mi

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Pressure
In the atmosphere, the greatest
pressure variations are in the vertical.
Pressure decreases
with altitude.
Gravity Pressure increases nearly 6
mb taking the elevator from
the 14th floor to the 1st floor.

967.2 mb on the 14th Floor


973.5 mb on the 1st Floor
Pressure
Pressure acts equally in all directions
Atmospheric pressure is proportional to
temperature and density.

T = 40F T = 65F
P = 1013 mb P = 1013 mb

More Dense Less Dense


But: Molecules are moving faster
Pressure
Atmospheric pressure proportional to
temperature and density.

Two identical Cooled Warmed


columns.
Still: Same
Pressure, Mass
Ideal Gas Law: p = RT
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However, smaller horizontal changes produce
the winds. 10
Pressure

Sea Level Pressure -- Whats up with that????


The earth is not flat.
Pressure is recorded at various
altitudes.
Need to have a level playing field to
get an idea of the horizontal pressure
structure.

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Pressure

Reduction to sea-level
Each station has its own set of
equations to reduce station pressure
to sea-level pressure.
The fictitious column is assumed to
have a known temperature profile.

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Pressure

Measured Weight per unit area of


a fictitious column between
Pressure: the station elevation and
950 mb sea level. (60 mb)

Sea Level
Corrected Sea-level pressure = 1010 mb

13
Pressure
The added corrected pressure depends
on the temperature of the fictitious column
of air. Recall p = RT

T = average of T and T-12 hrs

If the measured temperature is changing


rapidly -- errors.

14
Pressure

Errors are greatest for the mountain


stations --
The greater the altitude, the larger the error
Few number of stations in the mountains

Be careful analyzing pressure over the


mountains!

15
Forces of Nature -- Air in Motion

Horizontal pressure differences are


caused by Radiation!
The daily variation in the air temperature
near the surface of the earth is controlled
by:
Input -- Energy from the sun
Output -- Energy from the earth

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Horizontal Pressure Differences

Consider two columns of air

Cool Warm

Ps Ps Ps Ps

Pressure is the weight of the Warm one side and cool


air above you. the other side. Maintain
a constant surface pressure.

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Horizontal Pressure Differences

Consider an airplane flying at a


constant height. What are the
pressures?

Cool Warm

Ps Ps

There are more molecules in the column above the plane


in the warm column than in the cold column.

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Horizontal Pressure Differences
So we see a high pressure, at the altitude of the plane, in the
warm column and a low pressure in the cool air.

Low High
Cool Warm

Ps Ps
The horizontal difference in temperature creates
a horizontal difference in pressure.
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Horizontal Pressure Differences

Newtons First Law of Motion

A body at rest will remain at rest and a body in motion


will remain in motion, travelling in a straight line at
constant speed, unless acted upon by an unbalanced
force.

Consider an automobile on flat land

Start at rest -- The car will remain at rest.


Hit the gas (force) -- The car will accelerate.

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Horizontal Pressure Differences
Acceleration -- The change in velocity
(speed or direction) over a period of time.

Force Diagram

Friction Engine

To move forward: Gravity


Engine > Friction 21
Horizontal Pressure Differences
Coasting Downhill
Friction

The gravity force can be


broken into two components:
one horizontal to the ground
and one vertical to the
ground. Gv Gh
Gravity
If the horizontal gravity compontent (Gh)
is greater than the friction, then the car will speed down the hill.

If the horizontal gravity component is less than the friction,


the car will come to a stop. 22
Horizontal Pressure Differences

Review
With a balance of forces:
Rest
Motion in a straight line at constant speed
With Unbalanced forces:
The speed, direction, or both will change

What does this have to do with the wind?

23
Forces Acting on the Atmosphere
The wind is a result of forces acting on the
atmosphere.
Pressure Gradient Force (PGF)
Gravity (G)
Friction (Fr)
Coriolis (Co)
Centrifugal (Ce)

Net force = PGF + G + Fr + Co + Ce


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Forces Acting on the Atmosphere
Pressure Gradient Force

B
A

High Low
Pressure Pressure

When the valve is opened, the water will flow from tank
A to tank B ==> High to low pressure.
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Pressure Gradient Force

Pressure Gradient Force

PGF = (1/) (p/n)


1014
is the density of the air
1012
p is the pressure difference
n is the distance between the
stations

Has application to weather maps..............

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Pressure Gradient Force
Pressure Gradient Force
Ignore density (rho)
1012 1016
P ~ 4 mb/120 miles

P ~ 8 mb/120 miles

1020 The closer the isobars, the


greater
1012
the pressure gradient force

1016

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Pressure Gradient Force

Pressure Gradient Force

The closer the isobars on a weather map,


the greater the pressure gradient force.

Meteorologists measure pressure and


draw isobars to get the wind.

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Pressure Gradient Force

Vertical pressure gradient


force is larger than the Vertical pressure gradient
horizontal pressure force
gradient force.
PZ P
1000 mb
PZ
120 miles PH
Vertical pressure gradient
force is much (100X) larger
So why dont winds blow
than the horizontal pressure
straight up?
gradient force.
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Pressure Gradient Force

Gravity: Always acts downward (eathward);


keeps air molecules attracted to the center of
the earth.
PZ
Two huge
forces... Hydrostatic
Balance

G
Gravity just balances PZ (almost).
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Measurements -- Wind
Wind: The motion of air. Wind is a vector; it
has both magnitude and direction.
direction: wind or weather vane, wind sock
speed: anemometer - - most common types
are a rotating cup or a propeller
Wind direction is the direction from which the
wind is coming.
Book Record: 231 mph at the surface at Mt.
Washington, NH.

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Measurements -- Wind

Westerly Northerly
Wind Wind

Southerly Easterly
Wind Wind

New Speed Record: Red Rock, OK -- 26 April 1991


(Tornado!) 120 - 125 m s-1 (268 - 280 mph)
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