7.

3 Tools
 Hand Tools
Objective: -

At the end of this lesson the student will be able to identify hand
tools and its correct usage.
Hand Tools
Laying out is the transferring of information from a working drawing to metal surfaces
to show the worker the amount of metal to be cut away.

1. Surface Plate
The working surface of a surface plate is accurately machined to give a true flat
surface. They are made of closed grain cast iron and are strongly ribbed on the underside
for rigidity.

2. Scriber
Scribers are used for marking guidance lines on the surfaces of the work. They are
made from high carbon steel suitably hardened and tempered and classified by length.
When not in use, lightly oil and cover.
3. Outside Calliper
Outside calliper are used to measure the outside diameters of round objects and
thickness. The distance between the legs is then measured with a rule.

4. Divider
They may be used to divide a line or circle into a number of equal parts.
The divider may be used to measure the distance or finding the centre of circle. It is
available in sizes from 2 to 8 inches.
5. Inside Calliper
An inside calliper is a two-legged steel instrument with it's legs bent outward. It is
used to measure the diameters of holes or to measure spaces, it is then measured on the
rule.

6. Hermaphrodite Calliper
The hermaphrodite calliper has one pointed leg like a divider and one bent leg. It is
used to find the centre on the end of a piece of work.
7. Measuring Rules
The steel rule is also called the machinist rule, is made in many thickness, width
and lengths. The most commonly used steel rule is 6 inches.

The edges of steel rules are divided by fine lines into different parts of an inch such as
8 ths.,32 nds., and 64 ths. of an inch.

The smallest division is 1/64" the next larger is 1/32" the next is 1/16" then 1/8", 1/4"
and 1/2
 8. Combination Set
The combination set is the most commonly used set of tools in the machine shop.
The set includes:
a. Combination Square
-This attachment has two working surfaces, one at 90 and the other at 45 to the
fitted rule. This enable the tool to be used as a square or a mitre.
b. Centre Head
-The centre head may be used to extend a line a round a corner. The centre head
with the steel rule fastened to it, is called a centre square. It is used to find the
centre of a round piece.
c. Bevel Protractor
- This is used in conjunction with the rule to set or check angles. A spirit level, which
rotates with the protractor scale, enables the head itself to be used as clinometers.
SQUARE HEAD

SCRIBER

SPIRIT LEVEL

RULE
9. Solid Steel Square
This is the most common tool used by maintenance personnel for testing
squareness.

BLADE BLADE

STOCK STOCK
10. Surface Gauge
The surface gauge has a heavy, flat base carrying a spindle, which may be set at any
angle.

A scriber, which may also be set at any angle or any height is clamped to the spindle.

The surface gauge scribes a line parallel to a surface or to another line and is often
used as a height gauge.

It consists of a spring steel blade and faces of the stock are dead true and the
opposite faces of both are dead parallel.
SCRIBER
STEEL SPINDLE

ROTATING HEAD
13. V - Block
The V-Block is a block of steel with V-shaped grooves. It is used to hold round work
for laying out.

The V-block is generally made of cast iron but the most accurate types are made of
cast steel, hardened and ground. V-block is made in matched pairs. They must always be
used as a pair, do NOT mix V-blocks!
 14. Bench Vice
Bench vice are classified by the width of the jaws, which are made of hardened
steel. Thus, a 3 inches vice is one whose jaws measure 3 inches in width.

The handle of the vice acts as a lever, thus, the screw and lever help to make a
powerful clamp.
Bench Vice
15. Hacksaw
Construction consists of: -
a. Frame
b. Handle
c. Prongs
d. Tightening screw and wing nut
e. Hacksaw Blade

FRAME
HANDLE

BLADE TIGHTENING SCREW AND NUT

1) Frames
2 types available. Namely: -
a) Solid Frame
- Non adjustable
NON ADJUSTABLE FRAME
HANDLE

BLADE TIGHTENING SCREW AND NUT

b) Adjustable Frame
- Adjustable to suit blade of different lengths.
ADJUSTABLE FRAME
HANDLE

BLADE TIGHTENING SCREW AND NUT

2) Hacksaw Blade
Material: -
High Grade Steel, hardened and tempered or
a) Molybdenum Alloy steel
b) Tungsten Alloy steel
c) Molybdenum High Speed Steel
d) Tungsten High Speed Steel
BLADE

TEETH
3) Hacksaw Blade Grading: -

Depends on number of teeth per inch.

a. Coarse Blade
- 14 teeth per inch.
- For cutting soft material e.g.. Brass, bronze, aluminium, soft steel, 1" or more in
thickness.

b. Medium
- 18 teeth per inch.
- For cutting machine steel, angle iron and general purpose work, 1/4" to 1"
thickness.

c. Fine
- 24 to 32 teeth per inch
- Normally for cutting thin wall tubing, sheets, iron pipes, etc. 1/16" to 1/4"
thickness.
16. Chisels
Types and uses of Cold Chisels: -

a. Flat Chisel
- The flat chisel has a wide cutting edge. It is used for chipping flat surfaces,
cutting off sheet metal, cutting bars and rivets.

b. Cape Chisel
- The cape chisel has a narrow cutting edge. It is used for cutting narrow grooves.
c. Round-Nose Chisel
- The round-nose chisel has a rounded cutting edge. It is used for chipping round
corners and grooves.

d. Diamond Point Chisel

- The diamond point chisel has a cutting edge shaped like a diamond. It is used to

cut V-shaped grooves and to chip square corners.

17. Files
A file is a hardened piece of high-grade steel with slanting rows of teeth. The length
of file is the distance from the point to the heel.

The common sizes of files are 6", 8, 10" and 12" lengths.
Type of cuts of files: -

a. Single Cut
- This pattern of teeth is used on softer metals such as copper and aluminium
alloys.

b. Double Cut
- This pattern in which two single sets of teeth cross each other. Double cut files
are normally used to cut iron and steel.
c. Dreadnought
- A curved pattern of teeth, which is ideal for heavy cutting on board, soft metal
surface.

d. Rasp-Cut
- A cut used on very soft metals such as wood and plastic.
Grades of files:
a. Bastard
- This is a coarse fast-cutting grade for rough preliminary filing.

b. Second Cut
- This is an intermediary grade, which gives a better finish than a bastard file.

c. Smooth
- This is a slow cutter, which produces a very good finish.
File Card
File cards are wire brushes especially designed for cleaning files of pieces of
metal that are liable to clog the files teeth.
18. Scrapers
Scrapers are made in many shapes.

LENGTH OF SCRAPER

HANDLE
a. Flat Scrapers
- A flat scraper is used to scrape the high spots off a flat bearing surface that must be
perfectly matched to another flat surface.

b. Three-Cornered Scrapers
- A three-cornered scraper is a hardened-steel tool that is used to remove burrs or
sharp internal edges from soft bushing and similar parts.
19. Hammers
Hammers are classified according to their weight and shape. Hammers used by
maintenance personnel are :

a. Ball Pein
- The ball pein is a semi-sphere and is a general use hammer, the face being used
for chipping and any general driving use. The ball is mainly used for riveting,
spreading the metal evenly in all directions.

BALL PEIN
b. Straight Pein

- The straight pein has the pein in line with the centre line of hammer handle. This
hammer is used when stretching metal at right angles to the line of striking, and for
working close to an obstructing vertical surface.

STRAIGHT PEIN
c. Cross Pein

- The cross pein has the pein at right angles to the shaft. It's application is similar to
that of the straight pein.

CROSS PEIN
20.Drill
The most common type of drill is the twist drill. Twist drill are made of: -
a. Carbon Steel
b. High Speed Steel
c. Tungsten Carbide

Description of parts of a twist drill: -

a. Tang
- Only applicable to taper shank drills and engages with the drill socket for location
purposes.

b. Shank
- This is the plain part of the twist drill and can be parallel or tapered and is the part that
fits into the drilling machine.
 DEAD CENTER

LIP OR CUTTING
EDGE

MARGIN
A
CUTTING EDGE OR LIP B
FLUTE LAND
C
BODY

AXIS OF
DRILL
DEAD
CENTER

SHANK
B CUTTING EDGE OR LIP
A

TANG
c. Body
- This is the fluted part of the twist drill.

d. Land
- The leading edge of the body. It provides clearance for the remainder of the body thus
reducing friction and prevent the twist drill bending in the hole.

f. Flutes
- These are the spiral grooves twisted in the body of the drill to give the swarf passage,
from the cutting edge of the drill, and to allow the cooling lubricant down to the tip.
e. Web
- This is the non-cutting part of the drill tip.

WEB ANGLE

1300

CLEARANCE TO
REDUCE FRICTION
Cutting Angle
This is the angle between the cutting edges and the centre line and should be 59.
Drills are classified by diameter and type of shank, ie. Parallel taper.

CUTTING ANGLE

590
590

CLEARANCE
ANGLE

CUTTING
EDGES EQUAL
21. Drill Sizes

Three sizes of standard drill sizes are in common use: -

a. The Fractional Drills

- Range from 1/64" to 4" in diameter. The sizes increases by 64th of an inch in the
smaller sizes and 32nd of an inch and in the larger sizes.

b. The Number Sizes

- Consists of drills numbered from 1 to 80. The number 1 drill is the largest (0.228")
and number 80 is the smallest (0.0135"). To find the decimal equivalent consult a
drill size chart or handbook.

c. The Letter Sizes

- Consists of drills from A to Z. The letter A is the smallest (0.234") and letter Z is
the largest (0.413").
DRILL GAUGE NUMBER SIZES LETTER SIZES
22. Reamers
A reamer is a circular, multiple-tooth cutting tool used to enlarge and
smoothened holes to an accurate size. Reamers are made of either carbon steel or high-
speed steel. Reamer blades are hardened to the point of being brittle and must be
handled carefully to avoid chipping.

SPINDLE FLUTE

Types of Reamers: -

a. Straight-Fluted (Hand)
b. Spiral Fluted (Machine)

c. Hand Expanding

d. Hand Tapered
POINT TO REMEMBER WHEN USING REAMERS: -

a. Never remove more than 0.007"

b. Reamer must be accurately lined up

c. Never turn clockwise and anti clockwise direction, even when removing the
reamer from the hole.
23. Taps
A tap is a tool, which has three or four flutes cut across the thread. Taps are made
from carbon steel or high-speed steel and are hardened and tempered.

Taps are made the same size as bolts and screws. The size (outside diameter) of the
tap and number of threads per inch are stamped on the shank of the tap.

FLUTES

SHANK

T-HANDLE TAP WRENCH

The taps are used as a set: -

a. Tapered Tap
- The taper tap is tapered from the lead end for about 6 threads, which allows
ease of entry starting when tapping.
b. The Intermediate Tap
- The intermediate tap is tapered from the lead end for about 3-5 threads,
allowing a lead into the thread made by the taper tap and also providing with
the use of the plug tap on metal with a thickness up to 1/2 inch.
c. The Plug Tap
- The plug tap is tapered for about one thread and is used as a finishing tap
when tapping blind holes, or thick material where a taper tap will not give a full
thread.
24. Removing A Broken Tap From A Hole
A broken tap can be removed from a hole with a tap extractor.

A tap broken near the top of the hole can be removed by placing a dull cape chisel in the
flute of the tap striking light blows with the hammer.

TAP EXTRACTOR
25. Threading Dies
Dies are used for cutting external threads on bolts and studs. They are usually
manufactured in two types:
a. A round, adjustable, split die

b. Two piece die

Made of high carbon tool steel or high speed steel. The size of the threading die and the
number of threads per inch are stamped on die as 1/4-20, which means that the die will
cut a thread with a major diameter of 1/4" and has 20 threads per inch.

There are four clearance grooves providing the cutting edges, and the thread through the
die is not parallel, the first part is tapered outwardly in order to assist the die to cut
progressively.

HEXAGONAL DIES: Normally used to repair rusty or damaged threads. Available in

machine screw, fractional, pipe, and metric sizes.
26. Wrenches
Wrenches are used for the installation and tightening of threaded fasteners.

They are made in a variety of shapes to meet the requirements of the fastener. Wrenches
are sized by the hardware they fit and are made in fractional and metric sizes.
27. Open Ended Spanner
These are usually double-ended with a different size at each end. The jaws are
normally set an angle to the shank which is a useful feature when tackling nuts and bolts
in awkward places.

By turning the spanner over, the nut can be approached from different angle. The
length of open-ended spanners is in proportion to the jaw size, i.e. the smaller the jaw
opening, the shorter the overall length.
28. Ring Spanner
Ring Spanner grips the nut on all faces. The ends are usually made with twelve
point (bi-hexagonal) to make it easier to operate when spanner movement is restricted.

A ring spanner can be used to continuously loosen or tighten a nut with a minimum
swing of the handle of only 15 degrees, compared to a 60 degrees swing of the handle of
the standard open-ended spanner.

Advantages of ring spanners: -

a. The ring spanner is less likely to slip on the nut.
b. Ideal where high torque is required.
29. Socket Spanners
These spanners combine the advantages of both the ring and set
spanners. The bi-hexagonal socket is attached to the standard square drive of a wide
range of driving fitments.

These items include a reversible ratchet handle, rigid and flexible extension bars, 'T'
and 'L' shaped bars handles and swivel handles and a universal joint.

EXTENSION BAR

SPEEDER HANDLE
T-HANDLE

TAP EXTRACTOR

SOCKET HANDLE AND ADAPTERS UNIVERSAL JOINT

Type of sockets:
a. Hex Socket
- The hex socket is the socket most commonly used.

b. Deep Hex Socket

- The deep hex socket is used when the bolt protrudes beyond the nut.
 c. The Flex Socket
- The flex socket is very versatile, since the socket is an integral part of a flexible
joint.

Secured to these components by a spring-loaded ball or 'lock-on' plunger. The actual

square drive sizes vary from 1/4" to 3/4" in accordance to the nature of the work required
of the spanner.

The most common in the aircraft industry is the 3/8" square drive.
30. Tube Spanners
Tube spanners or tubular box spanners are made from cold-drawn
seamless tube. They serve the same purpose as the deep sockets
of the socket kits.

They are used on spark plugs and on nuts, which are a long way down on the bolts
or are deeply recessed into the job.
31. Hexagon Keys or Wrenches
Hexagon keys or wrenches are made from tool steel, hexagonal in cross-section,
and bent to an "L" shape.

They are "sized" by the distance across the flats of the hexagon. They may be
obtained as single items or in sets.

Sometimes called Allen Keys, they are used for wrenching cap screws, setscrews
and shoulder screws.
 32. Special Spanners
Special purpose spanners or spanner wrenches, as the Americans call them, are
special spanners for special jobs and do not come under the classification of tools for the
engineer's kit.

They can be a tool store item or supplied with equipment. Three of the more common types
are: -
a. The Hook or 'C' Spanner b. The End Spanner

c. The Pin Spanner

PIN SPANNER

PIN SPANNER
33. Spanners
The size of a spanner is determined by the nut or bolt it fits. Therefore, spanners are
made to fit nuts or bolts of specific thread systems.

Spanners for use on metric or unified nuts and bolts are marked with the distance
across the flats of the hexagonal nut or bolt that they fit.

The metric spanner is marked with a number representing the distance in

millimetres and the unified with a fraction followed by the abbreviation A.F. (across flats).

British standard spanners are marked with a similar fraction followed by the
abbreviation BSF or BSW (whit worth), but in this case the size refers to the diameter of
the bolt, whose head the spanner fits.

34. Screwdrivers
Screwdrivers are used to turn or drive screws with slotted heads. They are made in
many sizes and several shapes.

The size is measured by the length of the blade, which is made of tool steel that is
hardened and tempered at the point.

HARDENED
STEEL BLADE

TOO CORRECT TOO

SMALL SIZE LARGE
35. Philips Screwdrivers
These screwdrivers have the same nomenclature for their parts as screwdrivers for
slotted head screws, however, there is one difference.

The size of the screwdriver is governed by point size, not length of the blade. Point
sizes are given number - 1, 2, 3, 4. The screwdrivers are identified e.g. as No 1(or 2, 3, 4)
Philips screwdrivers.

Ensure, when a screw is to be removed or fitted, that the screwdriver is at right

angle to the screw, as otherwise uneven loading will be applied to the screw head recess,
which will cause damage to the bearing surface of the recess.

HARDENED
STEEL BLADE

TOO CORRECT TOO

SMALL SIZE LARGE
36. Pozidrive Screwdrivers
In order to extend the duration of patent rights, the manufacturer of Philips screws
has slightly modified the shape of the slotted head.

The modified type of screws is called Pozidrive.

Because Philips screwdrivers do not fit Pozidrive screws, maintenance personnel

are advised to obtain Pozidrive screwdrivers or tool bits.

HARDENED
STEEL BLADE

TOO CORRECT TOO

SMALL SIZE LARGE
37. Pliers
Pliers are generally made from high carbon steel or an alloy steel such as chrome
vanadium, which have high tensile strength.

Pliers are sized by their overall length, e.g. 5, 6, 7, 8, 10 and 12 inches. It follows
that the smaller the size, the lighter the work they will be able to do; the larger the size,
the heavier the work they will do.
HANDLE

JAW

OVERALL LENGHT
38. Combination Pliers
Combination pliers have jaws capable of gripping flat or round objects. Most
combination pliers have light cutting capability.

Pliers are sized by their overall length. Combination pliers are made in sizes
ranging from 41/2" to almost 10".
39. Adjustable Slip - Joint Pliers
Adjustable slip - joint pliers are widely used in maintenance work. The slip - joint
feature permits their use over a wide range of diameters.

They have four or more positions and are available in 5, 6, 8 and 10-inch sizes.
40. Round-Nose Pliers
Round-nose pliers are used to make eyes in wires to shape it around a terminal
screw. Available in 4, 5 and 6-inch size.

The jaw lengths of 1 to 3 inch. There are various types of pliers that used in confined
spaces such as: -
a. Long Nose Tapered
b. Long Needle Nose
c. Curved Needle Nose
d. Half Round Nose
41. Diagonal or Angle Cutting Pliers
Diagonal or Angle cutting pliers (side cutters) are designed exclusively for the cutting
of wires, cotter pins, nails and other comparatively small soft-metal pins.

Diagonal-cutting pliers are made in a number of lengths, 4 to 71/2 inch and cutting
capabilities. They should not be used for cutting hard steel or objects greater than their
capacity.
42. Duckbill Pliers
They can be used for many applications where a heavy clamping force is not
required. The major use by the aircraft technician is for the safety wiring of fastener.
 Power Tools
Objective: -

At the end of this lesson the student will be able to identify power tools
and its correct usage.
ELECTRICAL POWER TOOLS

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS FOR USE WITH PORTABLE ELECTRICAL TOOLS

When portable electric tools are used, you should use the following procedures:

Before portable electrical tools are used they must be inspected and approved for
shipboard use by the ship's electrical safety officer.

Prior to the use of any portable electric tools, you should make sure the tools
have a current ship's inspection mark. Additionally, visually examine the attached
cable with the plug and any extension cords for cracks, breaks, or exposed
conductors and damaged plugs. When any defects are noted, the tools should be
turned in to the ship's electrical shop for repair before use. Before plugging in any
tool, be sure the tool is turned off.

Personnel using portable electric tools are required to wear safety

glasses/goggles.

Rubber gloves must be worn when you are using portable electric tools under
hazardous conditions.
Portable electric tools producing hazardous noise levels in excess of the limits set
forth in OPNAVINST 5100.19 (Series) are required to be conspicuously labeled.
Personnel using tools designated as producing hazardous noise levels are
required to wear proper ear protection, as issued by the medical department.

Only explosion-proof (class I, group D, or better) portable electric tools should be

used where flammable vapors, gases, liquids, or exposed explosives are present.

Hand-held portable electric tools authorized for use on board aircraft shall be
equipped with ON/OFF switches, which must be manually held in the closed ON
position to maintain operation.
PORTABLE DRILLS

The portable electric drill is probably the most frequently used power
tool in aviation.

Although it is especially designed for drilling holes, by adding various

accessories you can adapt it for different jobs. Sanding, sawing, buffing,
polishing, screw driving, wire brushing and paint mixing are examples of possible
uses.

Portable electric drills commonly used in aviation have capacities for drilling
holes in steel from 1/16 inch up to 1 inch in diameter.

The sizes of portable electric drills are classified by the maximum size straight
shank drill it will hold. That is a 1/4-inch electric drill will hold a straight shank drill
bit up to and including 1/4 inch in diameter.
The revolutions per minute (rpm) and power the drill will deliver are most
important when choosing drill for a job.

The speed of the drill motor decreases with an increase in size, primarily because
the larger units are designed to turn larger cutting tools or to drill in heavy
materials and both of these factors require slower speed.

If you are going to do heavy work, such as drilling in masonry or steel, then you
would probably need to use a drill with a 3/8- or 1/2-inch capacity. If most of your
drilling will be forming holes in wood or small holes in sheet metal, then a 1/4-
inch drill will probably be adequate.

The chuck is the clamping device into which the drill bit is inserted. Nearly all
electric drills are equipped with a three-jaw chuck. Some drills have a hand-type
chuck that you tighten or loosen by hand.
PORTABLE DISK SANDER

Electric disk sanders are especially useful on work where a large amount of
material is to be removed quickly, such as in scaling surfaces in preparation for
painting.

This machine, however, must not be used where a minor-smooth finish is

required.

The disk should be moved smoothly and lightly over the surface.

Never allow the disk to stay in one place too long, because it will cut into the metal
and leave a large depression.
PORTABLE GRINDERS

Portable grinders are power tools that are used for rough grinding and finishing of
metallic surfaces.

They are made in several sizes; however, the one used most in the aviation uses
a grinding wheel with a maximum diameter of 6 inches.

The abrasive wheels are easily replaceable so that different grain size and grades
of abrasives can be used for the various types of surfaces to be ground and the
different degrees of finish desired.
PORTABLE ELECTRIC IMPACT WRENCH

The electric impact wrench is a portable, hand-type reversible wrench.

The one shown has a 1/2-inch-square impact-driving anvil, over which 1/2-inch-
square drive sockets can be fitted.

Wrenches also can be obtained that have impact driving anvils ranging from 3/8
inch to 1 inch.

The driving anvils are not interchangeable, however, from one wrench to another.

The electric wrench with its accompanying equipment is primarily intended for
applying and removing nuts, bolts, and screws. It may also be used to drill and
tap metal, wood, plastics, and so on, and to drive and remove socket-head,
Phillips-head, or slotted-head wood, machine, or self-tapping screws.
PNEUMATIC POWER TOOLS

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS FOR USE WITH PNEUMATIC TOOLS(GENERAL)

When using pneumatic tools, you should use the following procedures:

You should wear and use necessary personnel protective devices. Pneumatic
tools shall not be connected to, or driven by, air pressure in excess of that for
which the tools are designed. The wearing of appropriate eye protection
equipment is mandatory for aviation personnel when operating pneumatic tools.

You should be authorized and trained to operate pneumatic tools.

Pneumatic tools should be laid down in such a manner that no harm can be done
if the switch is accidentally tripped. No idle tools should be left in a standing
position.

Pneumatic tools should be kept in good operating condition. They should be

thoroughly inspected at regular intervals with particular attention given to the ON-
OFF control valve trigger guard (if installed), hose connections, guide clips on
hammers, and the chucks of reamers and drills.
Pneumatic tools and air lines may be fitted with quick-disconnect fittings. These
should incorporate an automatic excess-flow shutoff valve. This valve
automatically shuts off the air at the air lines before changing grinding wheels,
needles, chisels, or other cutting or drilling bits.

The air hose must be suitable to withstand the pressure required for the tool. A
leaking or defective hose should be removed from service. The hose should not
be laid over ladders, steps, scaffolds, or walkways in such a manner as to create
a tripping hazard. Where the hose is run through doorways, the hose should be
protected against damage by the doors edges. The air hose should generally be
elevated over walkways or working surfaces in a manner to permit clear passage
and to prevent damage to it.
All portable pneumatic grinders must be equipped with a safety lock-off device. A
safety lock-off device is any operating control that requires positive action by the
operator before the tools can be turned on. The lock-off device must automatically
and positively lock the throttle in the OFF position when the throttle is released.
Two consecutive operations by the same hand are required, first to disengage the
lock-off device and then to turn on the throttle. The lock-off device should be
integral with the tool. It should not adversely affect the safety or operating
characteristics of the tools, and it should not be easily removable. Devices, such
as a "dead-man control, that do not automatically and positively lock the throttle
in the OFF position when the throttle is released are not safety lock-off devices.
Rivet Head Shaver

The rivet-head shaver is used to smooth countersunk rivet heads that protrude.

The rivet head shaver is also called a micro miller.

The depth of cut is adjustable in increments of 0.0005 of an inch.On some models

the depth of cut is adjustable in increments of 0.0008 of an inch.

The cutters depth can be change and adjust without using special tools. Once the
depth is set, the positive action of the serrated adjustment locking collar prevents
the loss of the setting.

The cutters should position directly over the rivet head and hold the tool at an
angle of 90 degrees to the surface being smoothed.

With the tool turning at maximum rpm, then press it in towards the surface,
maintaining the 90-degree angle. The pressure feet will then be compressed until
they bottom out. At this time, assuming the rivet-head shaver is adjusted correctly,
the rivet head will be shaved aerodynamically smooth.
Pneumatic Riveters

Rivet guns vary in size and shape and have a variety of handles and grips.

Nearly all riveting is done with pneumatic riveters.

The pneumatic riveting guns operate on compressed air supplied from a

compressor or storage tank.

Normally, rivet guns are equipped with an air regulator on the handle to control
the amount of air entering the gun.

Regulated air entering the gun passes through the handle and throttle valve,
which is controlled by the trigger, and into the cylinder in which the piston moves.
Air pressure forces the piston down against the rivet set and exhausts itself
through side ports.

The rivet set recoils, forcing the piston back. Then the cycle is repeated. Each
time the piston strikes the rivet set, the force is transmitted to the rivet.

Rivet sets come in various sizes to fit the various shaped rivet heads. Rivet set
retainer springs must be used on all pneumatic rivet sets to prevent the set from
being discharged from the gun when the trigger is pulled.

Several types of pneumatic riveters are in general use. They are the one-shot
gun, slow-hitting gun, fast-hitting gun, corner riveter, and the squeeze riveter.

The type of gun used depends on the particular job at hand, with each type
having its advantages for certain types of work. Small parts can be riveted by one
person if the part is accessible for both bucking and driving. The greater part of
riveted work, however, requires two people.
Rivet Guns
The size and the type of gun used for a particular job depend upon the size and
alloy rivets being driven and the accessibility of the rivet.

For driving medium-sized, heat-treated rivets that are in accessible places, the
slow-hitting gun is preferred.

For small, soft alloy rivets, the fast-hitting gun is preferable.

There will be places where a conventional gun cannot be used. For this type of
work, a corner gun is employed.

Larger rivets require greater air pressure. The approximate air pressures for four
of the most common rivet sizes are given in table below.
ONE-SHOT GUN
The one-shot gun is designed to drive the rivet with just one blow.

It is larger and heavier than other types and is generally used for heavy riveting.

Each time the trigger is depressed, the gun strikes one blow.

This gun is rather difficult to control on light-gauge metals.

Under suitable conditions, it is the fastest method of riveting.

SLOW-HITTING GUN
The slow-hitting gun has a speed of 2,500 bpm (blows per minute).

As long as the trigger is held down, the rivet set continues to strike the rivet.

This gun is widely used for driving medium-sized rivets.

It is easier to control than the one-shot gun.

FAST-HITTING GUN
The fast-hitting gun strikes the rivet with a number of relatively lightweight blows.

It strikes between 2,500 and 5,000 bpm and is generally used with the softer
rivets.

Like the slow-hitting gun, it continues to strike the rivet head as long as the trigger
is depressed.
CORNER RIVETER GUN
The corner riveter is so named because it can be used in corners and in close
quarters where space is restricted.

The main difference between this riveter and the other types is that the set is very
short and can be used in confined spaces.
SQUEEZE RIVETER
The squeeze riveter differs from the other riveters in that it forms the rivet head by
means of squeezing or compressing instead of by distinct blows.

Once it is adjusted for a particular type of work, it will form rivet heads of greater
uniformity than the riveting guns.

It is made both as a portable unit and as a stationary riveting machine.

As a portable unit, it is larger than the riveting guns and can be used only for
certain types of work that will fit between the jaws.

The stationary, or fixed jaw, contains the set and is placed against the rivet head
in driving.
DRILLS

Portable Pneumatic Drills

Pneumatic drills are available in various sizes and shapes.

The drills are designed to provide a rotary shaft that is equipped with a chuck
capable of holding a drill bit.

Most are powered by a vane air motor, and the speed is adjustable by using the
variable restrictor built into the motor body.

Normal maintenance of the unit requires only a clean, dry air supply and periodic
lubrication of the vane assembly.

Lubrication can be accomplished by inducing a small amount of light oil into the
air supply.

The two most used types are the straight and the pistol grip.
Angle-Drive Drills

The angle-drive drills are attached to the drill motor by an adapter assembly or
clamped into the existing drill chuck.

They are available with a ridged or flexible drive shaft and come in several
different head angles.

These units are designed to be used as an extension of the drill motor in hard to
reach areas.

The drill motor should never be started unless you have positive control of the
angle-drive unit.

The flexible shaft is commonly referred to as a snake drill.

The drill chuck normally requires a wrench to tighten the jaws or it may require a
special threaded drill bit.
Precision Measuring Instrument
Objective: -

At the end of this lesson the student will be able to identify, read, and
proper usage of precision instruments.
Micrometers

A micrometer is an instrument used to measure distance in thousandth of an inch.

THIMBLE

HUB / BARREL

SPINDLE

C-SHAPE FRAME

ANVIL
Types of micrometers: -

1. Outside micrometer
RATCHET SCREW

RATCHET THIMBLE
RATCHET SPRING
RATCHET PLUNGGER
CAP WITH RATCHET

CAP ONLY
THIMBLE
COMPRESSION NUT

SCREW NUT

HUB
LOCK NUT

CLAMP RING

CLAMP RING ROLLER

SPINDLE
ANVIL
FRAME
2. Inside micrometer
3. Depth micrometer
4. Screw thread micrometer
Principle of the Micrometer

The micrometer uses the principle of the screw to control the movement of the
spindle. The screw has 40 threads to the inch. Forty turns of the spindle moves it 1 inch.

One complete turn of the spindle moves it 1/40th. of an inch, i.e. 0.025

Four complete turns of the spindle moves it 4/40th. of an inch i.e. 0.100 or 100
thousandth of an inch. Each fourth graduation is numbered 1,2,3 etc. meaning 0.1 0.2
0.3 etc. These are known as barrel scale. The bevel edge of the thimble is divided into 25
equal parts and each fifth part being numbered. This known as the thimble scale or sleeve
scale. Each graduation on the thimble scale is 0.001 or one thousandth of an inch.
Vernier Scale Micrometer

Some micrometer have a vernier scale. It can be read to ten thousandth of an

inch. (0.0001). The vernier scale consists of ten equal divisions whose total length equal
to nine tenths of a thimble division, a difference of 0.0001 inch. To find the fourth
decimal placing, find the line on the vernier that coincides with a line on the thimble.

Vernier Scale Micrometer Reading

The reading on a 0 -1 inch vernier scale micrometer is as shown: -

1. To read the vernier scale micrometer, your first read the barrel and thimble as with
a standard micrometer.

2. The 3rd graduation on the vernier scale coincides with the 17th division on the
thimble. Add 0.0003 to you previous reading.

3. Therefore the reading of the measurement shown on the vernier scale micrometer
is 0.3103 inch.
What is the measurement reading shown below ?
..inch
What is the measurement reading on 2 3 Mic
shown below ?
Answer inches
Vernier Calipers
A vernier calliper can make both external, internal and depth
measurements. The vernier calliper consists of a fixed scale and a vernier scale.

The largest number represents inches. The smaller number is tenths of an inch.
Each tenth is divided into four parts, or 0.025" per graduation.

The vernier scale has 25 divisions and thus will divide each graduation on the main
scale in 0.001".
INTERNAL MEASUREMENT
LOCKING SCREW

CURSOR
THE ADJUSTMENT CLIPPER

MOVING
JAW VERNIER MAIN SCALE
SCALE
FIXED JAW

FINE ADJUSMENT SCREW ASSEMBLY

EXTERNAL MEASUREMENT
Types of verniers: -

1. Vernier Calliper
Reading of vernier caliper in mm is 37.46mm
Reading of vernier caliper in mm is 3.7mm
Reading of vernier caliper in mm
2. Vernier Height Gauge
3. Vernier Depth Gauge
Vernier Height Gauge

The vernier height gauge equipped with a straight or offset scriber, is often used for
precision layout work.

It is also used in conjunction with a dial indicator for inspecting completed work.
Vernier height gauges are made in standard sizes, and of 12", 18" and 24".
Vernier Bevel Protractor

The vernier bevel protractor is an instrument that permits measurement of angles to

be performed to an accuracy of 5' (Five Minutes).

Main scale graduated into 180 degrees, marked 0 to 90 each way. The vernier
scale is divided into 12 equal divisions on either side of the zero.
 As with other vernier measuring devices, the vernier scale of a bevel
protractor allows the tool to divide each degree into smaller increaments.
The vernier scale is divided into 24 spaces, 12 spaces on either side of the
zero.
Each space on the vernier scale is, therefore, one-twelfth of a degree.
One-twelfth of a degree is equal to 5 minutes.
Measuring Obtuse Angle

Measuring Acute
Angle

Using a protractor
with a vernier height
gage
NUMBER OF WHOLE DEGREE
BETWEEN ZERO ON THE MAIN
SCALE AND THE ZERO ON THE
VERNIER SCALE = 37

NUMBER OF MINUTES
INDICATED BY THE LINE ON
THE VERNIER PLATE WHICH
LINE COINCIDES THE MAIN
SCALE = 00.40

37.00
+00.40
-----------
37.40
The vernier bevel protractor comprises the following components: -
1. Head

2. Stock

3. Blade

4. Blade locking device HEAD

5. Auxiliary blade STOCK

BLADE LOCKING
DEVICE

BLADE

AUXILIARY BLADE
 Lubrication Method and
Application
Objectives: -

The expected learning outcome is that the student be able to identify

method and equipment used during aircraft lubrication and servicing.
Lubrication Method and Application

The frequency of lubrication for each lubrication point in an aircraft is specified by the
manufacturer together with the type of lubricant, the method of application and any special
instructions. Information regarding lubrication is provided in the manufacturer's
maintenance manual for each model of aircraft.

FILL TO LEVEL
PAINT BRUSH OF FILLER PORT GREASE GUN HAND GREASE GUN OIL CAN
Some general guidelines that should be followed in the application of lubricants
are as follows:-

a. Cleanliness is essential to good lubrication. Lubricants and dispensing equipment

must be kept clean. Use only one lubricant in a grease gun or oilcan.

b. Store lubricants in a protected area. Containers should be closed at all times when
not in use.

c. Wipe grease fittings, oil holes and other lubrication points, with clean, dry cloths
before lubricating.

d. When lubricating bearings, which are vented, force grease into fittings until old
grease is extruded, unless otherwise noted.

f. When lubricating sealed bearings, use extreme care not to dislodge the seals.

g. After any lubrication, clean surplus lubricant from all but the actual working surface.
 FRAME LUG

1 LOCATION HINGE

1 LOCATION

DRAG STRUT

UNIVERSAL
ASSEMBLY

2 LOCATION
GLAND NUT
1 LOCATION

LOWER TORSION
4 LOCATION LINK

INNER CYLINDER

1 LOCATION

1 LOCATION
 Lubrication Equipment And
Method
Objectives: -

At the end of this lesson the student will be able to: -

1. Understand the importance of lubrication and various types of lubricant.
2. Identify various methods of lubrication and equipment.
Lubrication.

Any item of machinery where moving parts bear against one another require
lubrication. Lubrication is required to reduce the friction created and to minimise heat
build-up. This will provide better efficiency and longer life of the parts concerned.
Lubrication is required at many locations in an aircraft. The type of lubrication foe each
point is determined by the type of bearing, the bearing loads, the frequency and speed of
the movement, the temperatures at the bearing, and the materials that bear against one
another. Lubricants used for aircraft may be light weight lubricating oil, various weight of
greases high pressure (HP) grease, low temperature grease, high-temperature grease,
graphite, silicone and other special lubricants.
 The frequency of lubrication for each lubrication point in an aircraft is specified by
the manufacturer together with the type of lubricant, the method of application and any
special instructions. Information regarding lubrication is provided in the manufacturers
maintenance manual for that particular aircraft.
 Lubrication information is often presented in the form of charts and tables as shown
the diagram.
Electrical Measuring Instruments
Circuit Testing Method
Objective: -

At the end of the lesson student will be able to understand

how a digital multimeter measures current, voltage and
resistance.
Electrical Measuring Instruments Circuit Testing Method

1. A Digital Multimeter (DMM) is a measuring instrument, which could trace the value of an
unknown source or electronic component value.
2. DMM could take measurements of: -

a. Voltage - Across/parallel to the circuit.

b. Current - Series to the circuit..

c. Resistance - Across the particular resistor
Electrical Measuring Instruments Circuit Testing Method

Meters with moving pointers are called analogue meters. They measure quantities by
moving through as infinite number of points on a scale. In practice the function of a
voltmeter, ohmmeter and ammeter (milliammeter) are usually combined in an instrument
called a multimeter or volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM). This instrument will measure ac and
dc voltage up to 1000V, resistance from zero to infinity, and dc current from zero to 10A.
One-meter movement is used to provide all the indications by means of the various scales
on the dial.
 For each type of measurement the instrument is adjusted by means of a rotary
switch and by plugging the test leads into the proper jacks.
 The resistance measuring circuits are powered by a 1-5V battery and a 9V battery
to set the meter to zero before making resistance tests. When testing unknown voltage or
amperage it is important that the meter range be set above the highest level likely to be
encounter. This practise is to avoid damage to the instrument from overload and provide
maximum accuracy.