Engr Kareem Bakhsh

Topics
Atmosphere.
Definition.
Air pollutants & their classification.
Pollution Controls(Nox,SOx etc.).
Legislations/Administrative Actions
for abatement at National or
International level.
PEPA.
Outline
 AIR POLLUTION
Presence of certain substances in the air in
high enough concentrations & for long
enough durations to cause undesirable
effects.
Certain substances may be any gas,
liquid ,or solid.
Certain specific substances are considerd
significant pollutants because of very large
emission rates or harmful & unwanted
effects.
Classification
of Air Pollutants
Primary Air Pollutants.
Are those which can be directly emitted
from source .
CO,SO2,NO2,HC,H2S,HF,NH3,PM all are
primary pollutants released from source
of generation.
Secondary Air Pollutants.
Are formed in the atmosphere when
some primary pollutants react with one
another or with other chemicals in air.
SO3,HNO3,O3,PAN(Peroxyl Acetyl
Nitrate) & Aldehydes .
 Criteria Air Pollutants
1.Particulates (PM10 and PM2.5 ).
2.Sulfur Oxides (SOx).
3.Nitrogen Oxides (NOx).
4.Carbon Monoxide (CO).
5.Photochemical Oxidants (Ozone).
6.Lead.
 Particulate Matters
Extremely small fragments of solids or
liquids suspended in air are called
particulates.
Most particulates range in size from 0.1
to 100 micrometer.
Distinguished on the basis of particle
size and the emitting source.
1 micrometer is one millionth of a
meter.
 Toxic Air Pollutants
Pollutants hazardous to health or the environment
but not regulated as criteria pollutants:
1.Mercury.
2.Asbestos.
3.Arsenic.
4.Benzene.
5.Radon.
6.Vinyl Chloride.
7.Beryllium.
8.Coke Oven Emissions.
9.188 compounds designated by EPA as Hazardous Air
Pollutants or HAPs.
10.North Carolina has identified 105 Toxic Air Pollutants with
acceptable ambient levels or AALs.
 Global Air Pollutants
Pollutants that because of their persistence or
distribution have a global impact on air quality;

Chlorofluorocarbons Stable freons that once

in the stratosphere breakdown Ozone.
Carbon dioxide Major substance related to the
global greenhouse effect.
Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)
Fire fighting systems

alon 1211

Halon 1301

Halon 2402

Air conditioning Cooling systems

CFC-11

CFC-12

CFC 113

CFC 114, CFC- 115

 Hazardous Air Pollutants

188 Specific compounds

A substance when released to the
atmosphere can cause significant harm
to human health or the environment;
includes.

Particularly or extremely toxic substances

Carcinogens
Mutagens
 Activities Pollutants Immediate effects
Impacts

Transport Human health

PM
concentration

Power
Production
Acidic Environment
deposits

Residences

utrophication Materials
deterioration
Agriculture

Agricultural
Industry Ozone
concentration cultivation
Air Pollution
Control-Technologies
Common Control devices,typical contaminates &
examples
Nitrogen Oxides emissions/NOx
Control
 NOx Sources
Chemicals Production(Nitric
acid,Nitration Reactions etc).
Use of nitric acid metal and mineral
processing.
Combustion of Fuels.
 Oxides of Nitrogen
Nitrogen forms eight different oxides.
NO(Nitric Oxide) and NO2 (Nitrogen
Dioxide)are principal air pollution
interests (NOx).
N2O
N2O3
N2O5
N2O4
N2O2
Typical NO-NO2 emission
ratios from combustion sources

Source: USEPA, APTI 418, NOx Emissions Control from Stationary Sources
 NOx from the combustion of fuels is
formed initially as NO which
subsequently oxidizes to form NO2.
There are three sources of NO
production from combustion of fuels.
 Thermal NOx: forms by heating of N2
and O2 in flames
Prompt NOx: N2, O2 plus some
hydrocarbon species in fuel.
Fuel NOx: Conversion of nitrogen in
fuel into NOx
 Fuel NOX
NOX generated from organically bound nitrogen
contained in fuel is termed fuel NOX.
Organic Nitrogen is more reactive than Nitrogen in air.
Fuel Nox formation is weakly dependent on temp.
Organic nitrogen (not N2) in the fuel burns along with
the carbon and hydrogen. It either forms N2 or it
forms NOx.
Although only about 50% or less of the fuel nitrogen
converts to NOx, fuel NOx can constitute most of the
total NOx emissions from coal or any fuel with a high
nitrogen content (excluding N2).
How much of the fuel nitrogen coverts to NOx depends
on the oxygen levels in the flame. Consequently,
the reduction of flame oxygen level is a key element
in reducing the emissions that are formed by the fuel
NOx mechanism.

Source: USEPA, APTI 418, NOx Emissions Control from Stationary Sources
 The most universal of these is
thermal NOX formation.
In thermal NOX formation, NOx is
formed by the reaction of N2 in the
combustion air with combustion
reactants such as O and OH
radicals. Thermal NOX is emitted
from virtually all combustion
sources.
 Coal and residual oil have significant
amounts of nitrogen that can
generate half or three quarters of the
total NOx emissions.
Diesel oil typically have very little
nitrogen. Natural gas has no fuel
nitrogen, and therefore no NOX is
formed by this mechanism.
Prompt(Rapidly forming)
NOX
the third formation mechanism, forms
NOx by converting molecular nitrogen to
NO via intermediate products.
This reaction occurs in the early phase in
the flame front with hydrocarbons and is
observed in laboratory research studies.
While prompt NOx may be responsible for
some of the NOx from practical
combustors, it isnt normally considered
when dealing with NOx emissions control.
Forms due to carbon bearing radicals from the
fuels
CH+ N2HCN +N

N+O2NO+O

NO in low temperature flames are prompt NO and

weekly depend on T.

Prompt NOx formation cannot be prevented in spite

of the temperature and oxygen amount adjustment.
The main factors affecting the quantity of NOX formed by
thermal fixation are:
(1)the flame temperature,
(2) the residence time of the combustion gases in the peak
temperature zone of the flame,
(3) the amount of oxygen present in the peak temperature zone of
the flame.

Thermal NOx reduction is therefore accomplished by various

combustion modification techniques that either reduces the peak
flame temperature or the oxygen in the primary zone, or both.
These methods include:
(1)reducing the local oxygen concentration at the peak flame
temperature,
(2) reducing peak flame temperature,
(3) decreasing the furnace release rate
Source: USEPA, APTI 418, NOx Emissions Control from Stationary Sources
Contribution of Thermal, Prompt and
Fuel NOx
Reactions of Nitrogen oxides
Concentration (ppm)
 NO+HC+O2+sunlight NO2 +O3

NO2 +h O+NO (2)

O+O2+M O3+M (3)
NO+O3 NO2+O2 ozone is consumed
In the presence of VOC
VOC+2NO+O2H2O+RCHO+2NO2 (1)
NO is converted to NO2 without consuming
ozone
 NO and NO2 equilibrium
N2+O2 2NO
They are reversible reactions

K
NO
2

O2 N 2
 N2+O22NO NO+1/2O2NO2

Increase with T
Decrease
with T
 Reaction Rate is fast.
Equilibrium is reached in
about 0.3 s. Equilibrium
conc. of NO is higher

Equilibrum conc of
NO is low. Reaction
rate is slow. Even at
30 th second it does
not reach equilbrium
 Remarks: Zeldovich
mechanism
In order to decrease NO
Reduce T
Reduce O2

At high temperature flames, Zeldovich

mechanism predictions are high in accuracy.
At lower temperatures it predicts much
lower NO concentrations.
In automobile engines and large coal fired furnaces,
thermal NOX forms.
 General Methods For Control Of
NOx Emissions
NOx control can be achieved by:
Fuel De-nitrogenation.
Combustion Modification.
Modification of operating conditions.
Tail-end control equipment.
Selective Catalytic Reduction.
Selective Non - Catalytic Reduction.
Electron Beam Radiation.
Staged Combustion(Fuel Staging & Air Staging)
 Fuel De-nitrogenation

o One approach of fuel de-nitrogenation is to remove a large part of the

nitrogen contained in the fuels.

o Nitrogen is removed from liquid fuels by mixing the fuels with

hydrogen gas, heating the mixture and using a catalyst to cause
nitrogen in the fuel and gaseous hydrogen to unite. This produces
ammonia and cleaner fuel.

This technology can reduce the nitrogen contained in both naturally

occurring and synthetic fuels.
 Combustion Modification
Combustion control uses one of the
following strategies:
Reduce peak temperatures of the flame zone. The
methods are :
increase the rate of flame cooling .
decrease the adiabatic flame temperature by dilution .
Reduce residence time in the flame zone. For this we
change the shape of the flame zone.
Reduce Oxygen concentration in the flame one. This can
be accomplished by:
decreasing the excess air
controlled mixing of fuel and air
using a fuel rich primary flame zone
Catalytic Emission Control
 Modification Of Operating
Conditions
The operating conditions can be
modified to achieve significant
reductions in the rate of thermal NOx
production. the various methods are:
Low-excess firing
Off-stoichiometric combustion ( staged combustion )
Flue gas recirculation
Reduced air preheat
Reduced firing rates

Water Injection
Tail-end Control Processes
o Combustion modification and modification of
operating conditions provide significant reductions
in NOx, but not enough to meet regulations.
For further reduction in emissions, tail-end control
equipment is required.
Some of the control processes are:
Selective Catalytic Reduction
Selective Non-catalytic Reduction
Electron Beam Radiation
Staged Combustion
Selective Catalytic Reduction
(SCR)
Schematic process flow diagram NOX control
 Selective Catalytic Reduction
(SCR)
In this process, the nitrogen oxides in the flue gases are
reduced to nitrogen
During this process, only the NOx species are reduced
NH3 is used as a reducing gas
The catalyst is a combination of titanium and vanadium
oxides. The reactions are given below :
4 NO + 4 NH3 + O2 -----> 4N2 + 6H2O
2NO2 + 4 NH3+ O2 -----> 3N2 + 6H2O

Selective catalytic reduction catalyst is best at around 300

too 400 oC.
Typical efficiencies are around 80 %
For NO removal:
4 NO + 4 NH3 + O2 4 N2 + 6 H2O

For NO2 removal:

4 NO2 + 8 NH3 + 2 O2 6 N2 + 12 H2O

This reaction is called selective reduction because it uses a

reagent to react with the NOx.
 The chemical reactions are the same as SNCR, but
the reactions are catalytically driven. The
temperature range depends on the catalyst used:
Conventional SCR Systems are called base metal
systems. They usually use a Vanadium Pentoxide
catalyst. The best performance will be in the
range of 650 to 750F.
For low temperature applications, Precious Metal
is used, usually platinum. These systems can be
used at temperatures as low as 350F, and as high
as 550F.
High Temperature applications usually use Zeolite
catalysts and have been used successfully at
temperatures as high as 1050F.

Source: USEPA, APTI 418, NOx Emissions Control from Stationary Sources
Source: USEPA, APTI 418, NOx Emissions Control from Stationary Sources
 SCR --Process Design
Issues
NOx Removal Efficiency (impacts costs
and ammonia slip)
Ammonia Slip (Consideration of catalyst
life vs. ammonia slip)
SO2 Oxidation to SO3
System Draft Loss (imposing
backpressure on the combustion device)
Catalyst Life Expectancy
Ammonium Bisulfate Formation
Application Specific Issues

Source: USEPA, APTI 418, NOx Emissions Control from Stationary Sources
Source: www.ctre.iastate.edu/educweb/CE524/NOx.ppt
 Selective Non-catalytic
Reduction (SNCR)
At higher temperatures (900-1000oC), NH3 will
reduce NOX to nitrogen without a catalyst.

At NH3 : NOX molar ratios 1:1 to 2:1, about 40-

60%reduction is obtained.

SNCR is cheaper than SCR in terms of

operation cost and capital cost.

Tight temperature controls are needed. At

lower temperatures, un-reacted ammonia is
emitted. At higher temperatures ammonia is
oxidized to NO.
 Selective Non-catalytic
Reduction (SNCR)
The first of these technologies was Thermal DeNOx.
In this technology, ammonia is sprayed into the
post-combustion area of a boiler or furnace when the
temperature is 1650 F. Under these condition, a
50% reduction of NOx can be achieved.
The reaction is temperature sensitive, and the
window is small. If the temperature is to high,
ammonia will convert to NOx faster than the
reduction process. If the temperature is to low, the
reaction with the NOx will not occur.
The NOxOUT process uses urea (CO(NH2)2) as a
reactant instead of ammonia. The urea gives the
technology a broader and slightly lower temperature
window. Also, urea can be transported and stored as
a solid.

Source: USEPA, APTI 418, NOx Emissions Control from Stationary Sources
NSCR - Non-selective Catalytic
Reduction
The catalytic reaction is based on the
reaction between Nitrogen Oxides and a
fuel to give nitrogen and water. The
reducing fuel is generally chosen by site
availability & price (typically Natural Gas,
Light Naphtha or Hydrogen).
The fuel gas is introduced into the NOx
process upstream where it
homogeneously mixes before entering the
catalytic bed. The following reactions take
place:

CH4 + 4NO2 ---> CO2 + 2H2O + 4NO

CH4 + 4NO ---> CO2 + 2H2O + 2N2
 NSCR or three-way catalyst is used in
rich-burn or stoichiometric engines for
simultaneous conversion of NOx, CO, HC,
formaldehyde and HAPs. NSCR catalysts
are effective in a wide variety of engine
applications and fuels, including natural
gas, propane and gasoline. A closed loop
air-fuel ratio controller is required for the
three-way catalyst to work effectively.
 Electron Beam Radiation
This treatment process is under
development, and is not widely used. Work
is underway to determine the feasibility of
electron beam radiation for neutralizing
hazardous wastes and air toxics.
Irradiation of flue gases containing NOx or SOx produce
nitrate and sulfate ions.
The addition of water and ammonia produces NH 4NO3, and
(NH4)2SO4
The solids are removed from the gas, and are sold as
fertilizers.
Staged Combustion
 Staged Combustion
PRINCIPLE
Initially, less air is supplied to bring about incomplete
combustion

Nitrogen is not oxidized. Carbon particles and CO are

released.

In the second stage, more air is supplied to complete the

combustion of carbon and carbon monoxide.

30% to 50% reductions in NOx emissions are achieved.

 Staged combustion burners, the most common
type of low NOx burners, achieve lower NOx
emissions by staging the injection of either air or
fuel in the near burner region.
The division of combustion air reduces the oxygen
concentration in the primary burner combustion
zone, lowering the amount of NOx formed and
increasing the amount of NOx reducing agents.
Secondary and tertiary air complete the
combustion downstream of the primary zone,
lowering the peak temperature and reducing
thermal NOx formation.
Low NOx Burner

Source: USEPA, APTI 418, NOx Emissions Control from Stationary Sources
Reburning in a Utility Boiler
 Flue Gas Recirculation
(FGR)
Flue gas recirculation (FGR), also called exhaust gas
recirculatoin (EGR), works by mixing some flue gas with
the incoming combustion air.

This increases the mass flow through the combustion zone

and decrease the concentration of O2 available for
combustion.

Increasing the gas flow in the combustion zone decreases

the temperature, because the same amount of energy is
distributed to a larger thermal mass.

Source: USEPA, APTI 418, NOx Emissions Control from Stationary Sources
Two versions of the concept of
drawing gas from the exhaust
ducts and mixing it with
combustion air.

The upper path, sometimes called

induced FGR uses the ID fan
inlet suction to draw gas from the
stack. This increases the flow
through the fan, but otherwise
there is no energy penalty.

The lower path, active FGR

requires a dedicated fan and
pumps relatively hot gas across is
significant pressure differential
into preheated combustion air -
which means that the FGR fan is
fairly large. Active FGR systems
use a significant amount of
power. Source: USEPA, APTI 418, NOx Emissions Control from Stationary Sources
 Low Excess Air (LEA)
combustion
As shown in the figure, we can minimize
diffusion flame NOx by reducing the excess
air as far as possible without excessive CO or
smoke.

This highlights the need to control air flow

precisely on any combustion system that is
attempting to minimize NOx. Air flow needs
to be maintained near the minimum practical
(not quite smoking) level. The automatic air
flow control system needs to do this
continuously as the boiler load changes.
Precise control of excess air is the first and
most important step in controlling emissions
from boilers and furnaces. This can only be
achieved by using an O2 monitor tied into
an intelligent (microprocessor based) control
system.
The NOx creation rate typically peaks at excess oxygen levels of 5 7% where
the combination of high combustion temperatures and the higher oxygen
concentrations act together. At both lower and higher air/fuel ratios, NOx
production falls off due to lower flame temperature at high excess air levels
and lower oxygen at low excess air levels.
 Reducing NOx with Water
Injection
This figure is an example of the effect of water or steam injection
on turbine emissions. Water injection is not commonly used in
other types of combustion sources.
Water injection in a turbine
requires very clean water, but
there is only a small penalty to
engine efficiency. Water provides
cooling that would otherwise
have to be provided with air -
because the maximum allowable
turbine inlet temperature is far
below the peak flame
temperature in the primary zone.
Source: http://www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/coalpower/cctc/cctdp/project_briefs/limb/limbdemo.html
 Sulfur
emissions/SOX
CONTROL
GENERAL METHODS FOR CONTROL
OF SO2 EMISSIONS
Switching/Change to Low Sulfur
Fuel
Natural Gas
Liquefied Natural Gas
Low Sulfur Oil
Low Sulfur Coal

Increase Effective Stack Height

Build Tall Stacks
Redistribution of Stack Gas Velocity Profile
Modification of Plume Buoyancy
 Desulfurizing the fuel prior to
combustion.
Increase in process yield in chemical
production.
Increase in energy efficiency leading
to less fuel burnt.
Use Flue Gas Desulfurization
Systems
Use Alternative Energy Sources, such
as Hydro-Power or Nuclear-Power .
 Flue Gas Desulfurization
SO2 scrubbing, or Flue Gas Desulfurization processes can
be classified as:
Throwaway or Regenerative, depending upon whether the recovered
sulfur is discarded or recycled.
Wet or Dry, depending upon whether the scrubber is a liquid or a solid.

Flue Gas Desulfurization Processes

The major flue gas desulfurization ( FGD ), processes are :
Limestone Scrubbing
Lime Scrubbing
Dual Alkali Processes
Lime Spray Drying
Wellman-Lord Process
Limestone Scrubbing
 Limestone Scrubbing
Limestone slurry is sprayed on the
incoming flue gas. The sulfur dioxide
gets absorbed The limestone and the
sulfur dioxide react as follows :
CaCO3 + H2O + 2SO2 ----> Ca+2 + 2HSO3-+ CO2

CaCO3 + 2HSO3-+ Ca+2 ----> 2CaSO3 + CO2 + H2O

Lime Scrubbing
 Lime Scrubbing
The equipment and the processes are similar to
those in limestone scrubbing Lime Scrubbing offers
better utilization of the reagent. The operation is
more flexible. The major disadvantage is the high
cost of lime compared to limestone.
The reactions occurring during lime scrubbing are :
CaO + H2O -----> Ca(OH)2
SO2 + H2O <----> H2SO3
H2SO3 + Ca(OH)2 -----> CaSO3.2 H2O
CaSO3.2 H2O + (1/2)O2 -----> CaSO4.2 H2O
 Dual Alkali System
Lime and Limestone scrubbing lead to deposits inside spray tower.
The deposits can lead to plugging of the nozzles through which the
scrubbing slurry is sprayed.
The Dual Alkali system uses two regents to remove the sulfur
dioxide.
Sodium sulfite / Sodium hydroxide are used for the absorption of
sulfur dioxide inside the spray chamber.
The resulting sodium salts are soluble in water,so no deposits are
formed.
The spray water is treated with lime or limestone, along with
make-up sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate.
The sulfite / sulfate ions are precipitated, and the sodium
hydroxide is regenerated.
 Lime Spray Drying
Lime Slurry is sprayed into the chamber

The sulfur dioxide is absorbed by the slurry

The liquid-to-gas ratio is maintained such that the

spray dries before it reaches the bottom of the
chamber

The dry solids are carried out with the gas, and are
collected in fabric filtration unit

This system needs lower maintenance, lower

capital costs, and lower energy usage
Wellman Lord Process
Schematic process flow diagram SO2 scrubbing and recovery system
 Wellman Lord Process
This process consists of the following
subprocesses:
Flue gas pre-treatment.
Sodium sulfite solution spraying.
Sulfur dioxide absorption by sodium sulfite
Purge treatment
Sodium sulfite regeneration.
The concentrated sulfur dioxide stream is processed to a marketable
product.

The flue gas is pre - treated to remove the particulate. The sodium sulfite

neutralizes the sulfur dioxide :

Na2SO3 + SO2 + H2O -----> 2NaHSO3

 Wellman Lord Process
(contd.)
Some of the Na2SO3 reacts with O2 and the SO3 present in

the flue gas to form Na2SO4 and NaHSO3.

Sodium sulfate does not help in the removal of sulfur

dioxide, and is removed. Part of the bisulfate stream is

chilled to precipitate the remaining bisulfate. The remaining

bisulfate stream is evaporated to release the sulfur dioxide,

and regenerate the bisulfite.

CARBON MONOXIDE
CONTROL
 Formation Of Carbon
Monoxide
Due to insufficient oxygen

Factors affecting Carbon monoxide

formation:
Fuel-air ratio

Degree of mixing

Temperature
General Methods For Control of CO
Emissions
Control carbon monoxide formation.
Note : CO & NOx control strategies are in conflict.

Stationary Sources
Proper Design
Installation
Operation
Maintenance

Process Industries
Burn in furnaces or waste heat boilers.
CARBON DIOXIDE
CONTROL
 Sources of Carbon Dioxide
Human-Related Sources
Combustion of fossil fuels: Coal, Oil, and
Natural Gas in power plants, automobiles, and
industrial facilities
Use of petroleum-based products
Industrial processes: Iron and steel production,
cement, lime, and aluminum manufactures

Natural Sources
Volcanic eruptions
Ocean-atmosphere exchange
Plant photosynthesis
Sources of CO2 Emissions in
the U.S.

(x-axis units are teragrams of CO2 equivalent) Source: USEPA

CO2 Emissions from Fossil Fuel
Combustion by Sector and Fuel
Type

(y-axis units are teragrams of CO2 equivalent) Source: USEPA

 General Methods For Control of CO2
Emissions
Reducing energy consumption, increasing
the efficiency of energy conversion

Switching to less carbon intensive fuels

Increasing the use of renewable sources

Sequestering CO2 through biological,

chemical, or physical processes
CONTROL OF MERCURY
EMISSIONS
 Mercury Emissions
Mercury exists in trace amounts in
Fossil fuels such as Coal, Oil, and Natural Gas
Vegetation
Waste products
Mercury is released to the atmosphere
through combustion or natural processes.
It creates both human and environmental
risks
Fish consumption is the primary pathway for
human and wildlife exposure.
United states is the first country in the world
to regulate mercury emissions from coal-fired
power plants (March 15, 2005).
 Types of
Sources

Source: Seingeur, 2004 and Mason and Sheu, 2002.

Worldwide Distribution of
Emissions

Source: Presentation by J. Pacyna and J. Munthe at mercury workshop in Brussels,

March 29-30, 2004
 Control Technologies for
Mercury Emissions
Currently installed control devices for SO 2, NOX, and
particulates, in a power plant, remove some of the mercury
before releasing from the stack

Activated Carbon Injection:

Particles of activated carbon are injected into the exit gas
flow, downstream of the boiler. The mercury attaches to the
carbon particles and is removed in a particle control device

Thief process for the removal of mercury from flue gas:

It is a process which extracts partially burned coal from a
pulverized coal-fired combustor using a suction pipe, or
"thief," and injects the resulting sorbent into the flue gas to
capture the mercury.
PARTICULATE MATTER
CONTROL
Range: 20 to 40000 mg/m3
First step: Process control
Second step: Use of collection device
Particles produced during combustion or as secondary products in the
atmosphere, that might shift for very long periods far from their point of source.

PM 10 PM
Human hair 2.5
(70 m diameter) (10 m) (2,5
m)
 Particulate matter (PM)
Their chemical composition
depends on fuel quality. They
invariably consist of soot,
hydrocarbons, ash, metals
(vanadium, nickel, zinc), sulphur
and nitrate compounds

The smaller the size of the

particles, the deeper penetrate
into the human respiratory
system.
 Industrial Sources of Particulate
Emissions
Iron & Steel Mills, the blast furnaces, steel making furnaces.
Petroleum Refineries, the catalyst regenerators, air-blown
asphalt stills, and sludge burners.
Portland cement industry
Asphalt batching plants
Production of sulfuric acid
Production of phosphoric acid
Soap and Synthetic detergent manufacturing
Glass & glass fiber industry
Instant coffee plants
 EFFECTSOFPARTICULATE
EMISSIONS
Primary Effects
Reduction of visibility
size distribution and refractive index of the particles
direct absorption of light by particles
direct light scattering by particles
150 micro g / m3 concentration ~ average visibility of 5 miles
( satisfactory for air and ground transportation )

Soiling of nuisance.
increase cost of building maintenance, cleaning of
furnishings, and households.
threshold limit is 200 - 250 micro g / m 3 ( dust )
levels of 400 - 500 micro g / m3 considered as nuisance
Choice/selection of Control
equipment
Physical & Chemical properties of chemicals.
Particle size distribution .
Temperature & humidity of medium.
Carrier gas(throughput) vol & rate of
removal.
Efficiency required.
Permissible pressure drop.
Particle loading.
Economic considerations.
 General Methods For Control Of
Particulate Emissions
Five Basic Types of Dust Collectors :
Gravity and Momentum collectors
Settling chambers, louvers, baffle chambers

Centrifugal Collectors
Cyclones
Mechanical centrifugal collectors

Fabric Filters
Baghouses
Fabric collectors
General Methods For Control Of
Particulate Emissions (Contd.)

Electrostatic Precipitators
Tubular
Plate
Wet
Dry

Wet Collectors
Spray towers
Impingement scrubbers
Wet cyclones
Packed towers
Mobile bed scrubbers
 Size ranges removed by particular
equipments
Equipment Approximate particle size
range(m)
Settling Chambers
>100
Inertial separators
>50
Cyclones
>5
Scrubbers
>3
Venturi Scrubbers
>0.3
Bag Filters
>0.1
Electrostatic Precipitators
>0.001
 Particulate Collection
Mechanism
Gravity Settling
Centrifugal Impaction
Inertial Impaction
Direct Interception
Diffusion
Electrostatic Effects
Tubular Dust Collector Arrangement for an
ESP
 Overall Collection

Ci inlet concentration
Co outlet concentration

Note: The smaller the particle, the lower is

efficiency of removal.
 Problem
A cyclone operates removes 75% of
particulate matter fed to it. The filter
is then fed to an ESP which operates
with 90% efficiency. What is the
overall efficiency of this particulate
system?
 Step 1:
Assuming an initial feed of 100%,
determine the percentage of the stream
fed to the ESP.
100% - (100% x 0.75) = 25%

Step 2:
Determine final composition after ESP.
25% - (25% x 0.9) = 2.5%

Step 3:
Determine overall efficiency
hoverall= (initial final)/ initial
= 100% - 2.5%100% = 97.5%
VOCs CONTROL
 VOCs are precursors to ground-level
ozone production.
HC (VOCs)+NOx+O2 on reacting in
the presence of photochemical
light(hf) to produce Ozone &
other objectionable photochemical
pollutants.
Control of VOC emissions to
atm.
The hierarchy appropriate for control of
VOC emissions is;
Eliminate or reduce VOC emissions at the
source.
Recover the VOC for reuse.
Recover the VOC for treatment &
disposal.
Treatment & disposal of the VOC-laden
gas stream.
 Sources of VOC emissions.
Tank loading can be a significant
source of VOC emissions from
atmospheric storage tanks used or
the storage of organic liquids.
Number of ways are there for
prevention of VOC emissions,a
simple technique involving a balance
line is used.
Tanks with different types of
roofs to stop breathing
Discuss figures
 External floating roof
In this arrangement, the roof floats directly
on the surface of the stored liquid and is
open to the atmosphere.
The floating roof has a seal system for the
gap between the roof and the tank wall.
In principle, this eliminates breathing of the
tank to atmosphere, but maintaining a
reliable seal between the edge of the
floating roof and the tank wall can be
problematic.
 Internal floating roof

In this arrengment, tne tanks has a fixed

roof in addition to the floating roof, and the
floating roof is not open to the atmosphere.
The space between the floating and fixed
roofs should normally be purged with an
inert gas.
The inert gas would be vented to
atmosphere after traetment.
 Internal floating roofs are used when
there is likely to be a heavy
accumulation of rainwater or snow
on the floating roof.
 Flexible membrane

In this arrangement, the roof changes

shape to stop the vapor space breathing to
atmosphere.
EFFLUENT SYSTEMS
Effluent can be significant sources of the
VOC emissions.
If organic material is sent to effluent, along
with aqueous effluent, then evaporation
from open drains can create significant VOC
emissions.
 If this is the case, then having
separate sewers for organic and
aqueous waste, as illistrated can
eliminate the problem.
The organic waste is collected in a
closed system, typically draining to a
sump tank, from which the organic
material can be recovered or treated
before disposal.
 The segregation system has many other
benefits.
Effluent systems can be a significant
source of VOC emissions.
Organic plus aqueous effluent goes to
open drains ,2nd one evaporated to
create significant VOC emissions.
Segregation of aqueous and organic
waste can prevent VOC emissions from
open drains.
Built separate Sewers for both types of
wastes.
 The organic waste collected in a
closed system, typically draining to a
sump tank ,from which organic
material can be recovered or treated
before disposal.
Sampling of Organic Liquids
Sampling of organic liquids for
analysis & quality control can also be
significant source VOC emissions.
Traditional sampling technique
involving a sample point with a
valve.
Slow leaks from gaskets & machines
seals
Slow leaks from gaskets and from
compressor, pump & valve seal can
create fugitive emissions of VOCs.
Such emissions can be controlled at
the source by better maintenance.
More sophisticated sealing
arrangements are desirable to
eliminate the problem at source.
 Recovery of vapors for reuse need a
vapor recovery system to be installed
at storage tanks.
 Processes involving open operations

Filters,drum handling can create VOC

emissions.
It is impractical to enclose all such
operations.
 Methods of VOC recovery
Condensation.
Membranes.
Absorption.
Adsorption.
 4 main issues
Green House gases
Acid Rain
Ozone Depletion
Urban Smog
 Adminstrative Controls
The Worldwide;
Montreal Protocol
Kyoto Protocol
The Pakistan;
PEPA