Tabulation

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Objectives of Data
Tabulation
To carry out investigations
To do comparisons
To locate omissions and errors in the data
To use space economically
To study the trends
To simplify data
To use it as future references
Importance of Tabulation
Under tabulation, data is divided into various
parts and for each part there are totals and sub
totals. Therefore, relationship between different
parts can be easily known.

Sincedata are arranged in a table with a title and

a number so these can be easily identified and
used for the required purpose

Tabulationmakes the data brief. Therefore, it can

be easily presented in the form of graphs.

Tabulation presents the numerical figures in an

attractive form.
Importance of Tabulation
Tabulationmakes complex data
simple and as a result of this, it
becomes easy to understand the
data.

This form of the presentation of data

is helpful in finding mistakes.

Tabulation is useful in condensing the

collected data.
Importance of Tabulation
Tabulation makes it easy to analyze the
data from tables.

Tabulationis a very cheap mode to

present the data. It saves time as well as
space.

Tabulation is a device to summaries the

large scattered data. So, the maximum
information may be collected from these
tables.
Rules of Tabulation
There are no hard and fast rules for the tabulation of
data but for constructing good table, following general
rules should be observed while tabulating statistical
data.
The table should suit the size of the paper
and, therefore, the width of the column
should be decided before hand.

Number of columns and rows should neither

be too large nor too small.

As far as possible figures should be

approximated before tabulation. This would
reduce unnecessary details.
Rules of Tabulation
Itemsshould be arranged either in
alphabetical, chronological or geographical
order or according to size.

Thesub-total and total of the items of the

table must be written.

Percentages are given in the tables if

necessary.

Ditto
marks should not be used in a table
because sometimes it create confusion.

Table should be simple and attractive.

Rules of Tabulation
A table should be logical, well-balanced in
length and breadth and the comparable
columns should be placed side by side.

Light/heavy/thickor double rulings may be

used to distinguish sub columns, main
columns and totals.

For
large data more than one table may be
used.
Parts of an Ideal Table
Table number:
A number must be allotted to the table for
identification, particularly when there are
many tables in a study.

Title:

The title should explain what is contained in

the table. It should be clear, brief and set in
bold type on top of the table. It should also
indicate the time and place to which the
data refer.
Parts of an Ideal Table
Date:
The date of preparation of the table should be
given.

Stubs or Row designations:

Each row of the table should be given a brief
heading. Such designations of rows are called
stubs, or, stub items and the entire column is
called stub column.

Column headings or Captions:

Column designation is given on top of each column
to explain to what the figures in the column refer. It
should be clear and precise. This is called a
caption, or, heading. columns should be
numbered if there are four, or, more columns.
Parts of an Ideal Table
Body of the table:
The data should be arranged in such a way that any
figure can be located easily. Various types of
numerical variables should be arranged in an
ascending order, i.e., from left to right in rows and
from top to bottom in columns. Column and row totals
should be given.

Unit of measurement:
If the unit of measurement is uniform throughout
the table, it is stated at the top right-hand corner
of the table along with the title. If different rows
and columns contain figures in different units, the
units may be stated along with stubs, or,
captions. Very large figures may be rounded up
but the method of rounding should be explained.
Parts of an Ideal Table
Source:

At the bottom of the table a note should be

added indicating the primary and secondary
sources from which data have been
collected.

Footnotes and references:

If any item has not been explained properly,
a separate explanatory note should be
added at the bottom of the table.
Limitation of Tabulation
Tables
contain only numerical data. They do
not contain details.

qualitative expression is not possible through

tables.

Tables
can be used by experts only to draw
conclusions. Common men do not
understand them properly.
Methods of Tabulation
Simple tabulation
Simple tabulation is when the data
are tabulated to one
characteristic. For example, the
survey that determined the
frequency or number of
employees of a firm owning
different brands of mobile phones
like Blackberry, Nokia, Iphone, etc.
Methods of Tabulation
Double tabulation

Double tabulation is when two

characteristics of data are tabulated. For
example, frequency or number of male and
female employees in the firm owning
different brand of mobile phones like
Blackberry, Nokia, Iphone, etc.
Methods of Tabulation
Complex tabulation
Complex tabulation of data that includes more
than two characteristics. For example, frequency
or number of male, female and the total
employees owning different brand of mobile
phones like Blackberry, Nokia, Iphone, etc.
Crosstabulations, is also a sub-type of complex
tabulation that includes cross-classifying factors
to build a contingency table of counts or
frequencies at each combination of factor levels.
A contingency table is a display format used to
analyze and record the possible relationship
between two or more categorical variables
Frequency Tables

Simple frequency tables

Grouped frequency tables

Cumulative frequency
tables
Simple Frequency Tables
Ifthe value of a variable, e.g., height,
weight, etc. (continuous), number of
students in a class,

readings of a taxi-meter (discrete) etc.,

occurs twice or more in a given series of
observations,
then
the number of occurrence of the value is
termed as the frequency of that value.
Simple Frequency Tables
Marks of 100 students of a class in economics
Simple Frequency Tables
Simple frequency table for marks
Grouped Frequency Tables
The tabulation of raw data by dividing the
whole range of observations into a number of
classes and indicating the corresponding class-
frequencies against the class-intervals, is
called grouped frequency distribution.

Thus the steps in preparing the grouped frequency distribution

are:

1. Determining the class intervals.

2. Recording the data using tally marks.
3. Finding frequency of each class by counting the tally arks.
Grouped Frequency Tables
Important Terms
Class-limits: The maximum and minimum
values of a class-interval are called upper
class limit and lower class-limit respectively

Class-mark, or, Mid-value: The class-

mark, or, mid-value of the class-interval lies
exactly at the middle of the class-interval
Grouped Frequency Tables
Class boundaries: Class boundaries are the
true-limits of a class interval. It is associated with
grouped frequency distribution, where there is a
gap between the upper class-limit and the lower
class-limit of the next class. This can be
determined by using the formula:

where d = common difference between the

upper class-limit of a class-interval and the
lower class limit
of the next higher class interval
Grouped Frequency Tables
Width or Length (or size) of a Class-
interval: Width of a class-interval = Upper
class boundary Lower class-boundary

Relative frequency:
Grouped Frequency Tables
Percentage frequency:

Frequency density:
 Grouped Frequency
Tables
Types of Grouped tables
Exclusive type

Upper limit excluded

X f
10 15 XX
15 20 XX
20 25 XX
25 30 XX
 Grouped Frequency Tables
Exclusive type

Lower limit excluded

X f
Above 10 but no more XX
than 15
Above 15 but no more XX
than 20
Above 20 but no more XX
than 25
Above 25 but no more XX
than 35
 Grouped Frequency Tables
Exclusive types

Upper limit excluded

X f
30 - XX
40 - XX
50 - XX
60 -70 XX
Grouped Frequency Tables

Inclusive type

X f
30 39 XX
40 49 XX
50 59 XX
60 69 XX
Grouped Frequency Tables
Open End Type

X f
0 10 XX
10 20 XX
20 30 XX
30 over XX

X f
Below 30 XX
30 40 XX
40 50 XX
50 and over XX
Grouped Frequency Tables
Unequal class intervals

X f
10 30 XX
30 35 XX
35 40 XX
40 60 XX
60 70 XX
70 100 XX
Multivariate Frequency
Tables
The multivariate frequency table is a statistic
method to organize and simplify a large set of
data of two or more variables in a single table.

Example:
Multivariate Frequency
Tables
Example: Multivariate frequency table
Multivariate Frequency
Tables
Example: Marginal frequency tables for X and Y
 Multivariate Frequency
Tables
Example: Conditional Distribution X when Y Lies Between 300 and 400
Cumulative Frequency
Tables
Thecumulative frequencytable of a set of data
is a table which indicates the sum of the
frequencies of the data up to a required level.
It can be used to determine the number of
items that have values below a particular level.
Example: Construct the cumulative frequency distribution (both
less than and more than types) from the following data:
 Cumulative Frequency
Tables
Example: Cumulative frequency table
 Cross Tabulation
Cross-tabs or cross tabulation is a quantitative
research method appropriate for analyzing the
relationship between two or more variables. Data
about variables is recorded in a table or matrix. A
sample is used to gather information about the
variable.

Cross Tabulationgives you the ability to compare

two questions to each other and evaluate
relationships between the responses of those
questions. You can review the frequency and
assess the statistical significance in that
relationship. Cross tabulation is particularly
useful when you want to assess whether there is
a relationship between how your entire
Cross Tabulation
General Hints When Constructing Tables
1. Make sure that all the categories of the variables presented in the
tables have been specified and that they are mutually exclusive (i.e.
no overlaps and no gaps) and exhaustive.

2. When making cross-tabulations, check that the column and row

counts correspond to the frequency counts for each variable.

3. Check that the grand total in the table corresponds to the number of
subjects in the sample. If not, an explanation is required. This could
be presented as a footnote. (Missing data, for example.)

4. Think of a clear title for each table. Also be sure that the headings of
rows and columns leave no room for misinterpretation.

5. Number your tables and keep them together with the objectives to
which they are related. This will assist in organizing your report and
ensure that work is not duplicated.
Cross Tabulation - Descriptive Cross
Tabulation
Example 1:
A study was carried out on the degree of job satisfaction among doctors
and nurses in rural and urban areas. To describe the sample a cross-
tabulation was constructed which included the sex and the residence
(rural or urban) of the doctors and nurses interviewed. This was useful
because in the analysis the opinions of male and female staff had to be
compared separately for rural and urban areas.

Type of health worker by residence

Cross Tabulation - Descriptive Cross
Tabulation

Residence and sex of doctors and nurses

Cross Tabulation - Descriptive Cross
Tabulation
Example 2:
We want to know the ages at which teenage pregnancies occur and
whether they are more frequent among schoolgirls than among girls who
are not attending school. In order to answer these questions we may
construct the following cross-tabulation.

Number of teenage pregnancies at different ages among girls

attending school and not attending school (Province X, 2000 - 2010)
Cross Tabulation - Descriptive Cross
Tabulation
Example 3:
A study was done to examine the factors contributing to the high
proportion of stillbirths in a hospital. The following cross-tabulation
describes how many of the fresh and macerated (wasted) stillbirths
weighed less than 2500 grams and how many weighed 2500 grams or
more.

Weight of foetus by condition at birth

Cross Tabulation - Descriptive Cross
Tabulation

Example 4:
In a cross-sectional survey on malnutrition, for example, relationships
could be tested between the duration of breastfeeding and the mothers
age, or the mothers working status (answering previously formulated
research questions, but sometimes new questions that crop up during
analysis of the material).

Note that in such tables it is allowed to calculate your percentages both horizontally and vertically as all
variables have a similar chance of appearing in the survey. However, we will usually put the variable that is
assumed to influence the other one in rows, while the dependent variable will be put in columns
Cross Tabulation - Descriptive Cross
Tabulation
Duration of breastfeeding by mothers age

Working status of mothers in relation to duration of breastfeeding

 Cross Tabulation - Analytic cross-
tabulations
Example 5:
One of the possible contributing factors to malnutrition of under 5s is
knowledge of the mothers of appropriate weaning foods. The cross-
sectional comparative study on malnutrition based on the survey gave the
following results

Mothers level of knowledge and nutritional status of their children