CHAPTER 11

Metal-Casting Processes

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 11-1
 Introduction
First casting was made on
4000 3000 BC, using stone
and metal mold for copper
casting
 TABLE 11.1
Process Advantages Limitations
S and Almos t any metal cas t; no l imit to s i ze, s S ome finis hing r equi red;
hape or weight; low tooling cost. s omewhat coars e finis h; wide
tol e rances .

S hel l mold Good dimens ional accuracy and surface Part s i ze l imited; expens ive patterns and
finis h; high production rate . equi pment requi red.

Expendable pattern Mos t metals cas t with no limit to s i ze; Patterns have low s trength and can be cos
compl ex s hapes tly for low quantities

Plaster mold Intri cate s hapes ; good dimens ional accu- Limited to nonferrous metals; l imited size
racy and finish; low poros i ty. and volume of production; mold mak ing

Summary of time re latively long.

Casting Ceramic mold Intri cate s hapes ; c lose

tol erance parts; good s urfac e
Limited s i ze.

Processes Inves tment

finish.

Intri cate s hapes ; excel lent surface finis h Part s i ze l imited; expens ive patterns ,
and accuracy; almost any metal cas t. molds , and labor.

Permanent mold Good s urface finis h and dimens ional High mold cos t; l imited shape and intri
accuracy; low poros i ty; high production cacy; not s uitabl e for high-melting-point
rate . metals .

Die Exce ll ent dimensional ac curacy and s Di e cost is high; part s i ze l imited; us ually
urface finis h; high production rate . limited to
nonferrous metals ; long lead time.

Centrifugal Large cylindr ical parts with good qual ity; Equipment is expens ive; part s hape l
high production rate . imited.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 11-3
 Casing Examples
Camera
Carbonators
Engine blocks
Crank Shafts
Automotive components
Agricultural and railroad components
Pipes
Power tools
Gun barrels
Frying pan
Large component of hydraulic turbine
 Die-Casting Examples

(a) (b)

Figure 11.1 (a) The Polaroid PDC-2000 digital camera with a AZ91D die-cast, high purity
magnesium case. (b) Two-piece Polaroid camera case made by the hot-chamber die casting
process. Source: Courtesy of Polaroid Corporation and Chicago White Metal Casting, Inc.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 11-5
 Casting Examples

Figure 11.2 Typical gray-

iron castings used in
automobiles, including
transmission valve body (left)
and hub rotor with disk-brake
cylinder (front). Source:
Courtesy of Central Foundry
Division of General Motors
Corporation.

Figure 11.3 A cast

transmission housing.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 11-6
 General Characteristics of Casting Processes
TABLE 11.2
Typical Weig ht (kg) Typical Section thic kness (mm)
surface
Process materials Minimum Maximum finish Porosity* Shape Dimensional Minimum Maximum
cast (m, R a) complexity* accuracy*
Sand All 0.05 No limit 5-25 4 1-2 3 3 No limit
Shell All 0.05 100+ 1-3 4 2-3 2 2 --
Expendable All 0.05 No limit 5-20 4 1 2 2 No limit
mold
pattern
Plas t er mold Nonferrous (A 0.05 50+ 1-2 3 1-2 2 1 --
l, Mg,Zn, Cu)

Investment All 0 .005 100+ 1-3 3 1 1 1 75

(High melting
pt.)
Permanent All 0.5 300 2-3 2-3 3-4 1 2 50
mold
Die Nonferrous (A <0.05 50 1-2 1-2 3-4 1 0 .5 12
l, Mg,Zn, Cu)

Centrifuga l All -- 5000+ 2-10 1-2 3-4 3 2 100

*Relative rat ing:1 bes t,5 wors t .
Note : These ratings are only genera l; s ignificant variations can occur,depending on the methods used.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 11-7
Major Components of Sand Mold
1. Flask
-Cope, Drag and Cheeks
2. Pouring basin or Pouring cup
3. Sprue
4. Runner system
5. Riser
6. Cores
7. Vents
 Sand Mold Features

Figure 11.4 Schematic illustration of a sand mold, showing various features.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 11-9
 Sand Casting Process
1.Placing a pattern having the shape
of the desired casting in sand to
make an imprint
2.Incorporate a gating system
3.Filling the resulting cavity with
molten metal
4.Allowing the metal to cool until it
solidified
5.Breaking a way the sand mold
6.Removing the casting
 Steps in Sand Casting

Figure 11.5 Outline of production steps in a typical sand-casting operation.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 11-11
 Sands
Used mostly silica sand (SiO2)
Inexpensive
Suitable because it can withstand high
temperature
 Types of Sands
Two types of sands
1.Naturally bonded (bank sand)
2.Synthetic (lake sand)
- composition can be controlled more
accurately
- preferred in most foundries
Factors that are important in selecting sand
Fine and round grains can closely packed and
form smooth surface
Fine grain enhance mold strength and lower
the mold permeability
Good permeability of mold and core allows the
gases and steam to escape
Should have good collapsibility to avoid
casting defects (allow the casting to shrink
while cooling)
 Sand is typically conditioned before use

Mulling machine is used to mix additives

uniformly and thoroughly
Clay (bentonite) is used as cohesive agent
which give sand strength
Zircon (ZrSiO4), Olivine (Mg2SiO4) and Iron
Silicate (Fe2SiO4) sands are often used for high
heat-transfer characteristics
Types of Sand Mold

1. Green sand mold

2. Cold box mold
3. No bake mold
 Green sand mold
Common mold material is green molding sand
which is a mixture of sand, clay and water
green refers the sand in the mold is moist
or damp when the metal is being poured into it
Green sand molding is the least expensive
method of making mold
Skin dried method: surface is dried either by
storing in the air or by drying wit torches
Sand mold is also baked before pouring. Thus
they are stronger than green sand mold,
better dimensional accuracy, better surface
finish, hot tearing because of lower
collapsibility, slower production rate.
 Cold box mold
Various organic and inorganic binders are used
to bond the grains chemically
Greater strength
More dimensional accuracy
More expensive
 No bake mold
Synthetic liquid resin is mixed with the sand
Mixture hardens at room temperature

In cold box and no bake molding process

bonding is done without heat, thus they are
called cold setting process
 Patterns
Used to mold the sand mixture into shape of
casting
Made of wood, plastic, metal
Selection of pattern material depend on
- size & shape
- dimensional accuracy
- quality of casting required
- molding process
Patterns are used repeatedly
- so it should be strong and durable
- quality depend on number of casting that the
mold will
produce
- may be of combination of material to reduce
wear in
certain region
Patterns are usually coated with parting
 Pattern Material Characteristics

TABLE 11.3
Ratinga
Characteristic Wood Aluminum Steel Plastic Cast iron
Machinability E G F G G
Wear resistance P G E F E
Strength F G E G G
Weightb E G P G P
Repairability E P G F G
Resistance to:
Corrosionc E E P E P
Swellingc P E E E E
aE, Excellent; G, good; F, fair; P, poor.
bAs a factor in operator fatigue.
cBy water.
Source : D.C. Ekey and W.R. Winter, Introduction to Foundry Technology. New York.
McGraw-Hill, 1958.
Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 11-21
One piece pattern / loose pattern / solid pattern

Used for simpler shape

Low quality production
Generally made of wood
inexpensive
 Split patterns
Two piece pattern
Each part produce a part of mold cavity
Casting with complicated shape can be done
 Match - plate patterns
Popular type of mounted pattern
two- - piece pattern are constructed by
securing each half of one or more split
patterns to the opposite sides of a single plate
 Patterns for Sand Casting

Figure 11.6 A typical metal

match-plate pattern used in
sand casting.

Figure 11.7 Taper on patterns for

ease of removal from the sand mold.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 11-25
 Cores
For casting internal cavities or passages
Example: automotive engine blocks or valves
Cores are placed in the mold cavity before
casting to form the interior surfaces of the
casting
Removed from the finished part during
shakeout and further processing
Cores must possess
- strength
- permeability
- withstand heat
- collapsibility
- thus made of sand
 Cores
Cores are anchored by core print
- core print are the recesses added to the
pattern to support
core and to provide vent to escape gases

Chaplets
- keep the core from shifting
- its a metal support
- anchor the core in place

Cores are generally made in a manner similar

to that used in mold making
 Examples of Sand Cores and Chaplets

Figure 11.8 Examples of sand cores showing core prints and chaplets to support cores.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 11-28
 Sand molding machine
Oldest process is to compact by hammering or
ramming
Now a days compacted by molding machine
- eliminate arduous labor
- high quality casting
- improve distribution of force
- manipulate the mold in a carefully controlled
manner
- increase production rate
Mechanization is further assisted by jolting the
assembly
- after placing flask, sand, pattern then jolted at
rapid interval
- provide initial compaction around the pattern
- jolting produce highest compaction at
horizontal parting line
but in squeezing compaction is highest at the
 Squeeze Heads
Figure 11.9 Various designs
of squeeze heads for mold
making: (a) conventional flat
head; (b) profile head;
(c) equalizing squeeze
pistons; and (d) flexible
diaphragm. Source:
Institute of British
Foundrymen. Used with
permission.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 11-30
 Vertical flask less molding
Sand is blown and compacted against vertical
wall of the chamber
The mold halves are packed horizontally
Operation is simple
No need to handle flask
High production rate
 Vertical Flaskless Molding

Figure 11.10 Vertical flaskless molding. (a) Sand is squeezed between two halves of the pattern. (b)
Assembled molds pass along an assembly line for pouring.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 11-32
 Sequence of Operations for Sand Casting

Figure 11.11 Schematic illustration of the sequence of operations for sand casting. Source: Steel Founders'
Society of America. (a) A mechanical drawing of the part is used to generate a design for the pattern.
Considerations such as part shrinkage and draft must be built into the drawing. (b-c) Patterns have been
mounted on plates equipped with pins for alignment. Note the presence of core prints designed to hold the
core in place. (d-e) Core boxes produce core halves, which are pasted together. The cores will be used to
produce the hollow area of the part shown in (a). (f) The cope half of the mold is assembled by securing the
cope pattern plate to the flask with aligning pins, and attaching inserts to form the sprue and risers.
(continued)

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 11-33
 Sequence of Operations for Sand Casting (cont.)

Figure 11.11 (g) The flask is rammed with sand and the plate and inserts are removed. (g) The drag half is produced
in a similar manner, with the pattern inserted. A bottom board is placed below the drag and aligned with pins. (i) The
pattern, flask, and bottom board are inverted, and the pattern is withdrawn, leaving the appropriate imprint. (j) The
core is set in place within the drag cavity. (k) The mold is closed by placing the cope on top of the drag and buoyant
forces in the liquid, which might lift the cope. (l) After the metal solidifies, the casting is removed from the mold.
(m) The sprue and risers are cut off and recycled and the casting is cleaned, inspected, and heat treated (when
necessary).

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 11-34
Surface Roughness for Various Metalworking Processes

Figure 11.12 Surface roughness in casting and other metalworking processes. See also Figs. 22.14 and
26.4 for comparison with other manufacturing processes.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 11-35
 Shell mold casting
First developed in 1940
Close dimensional tolerance
Good surface finish
Low cost
 Shell mold casting
A mounted pattern made of ferrous metal or
Aluminium is heated to 1750C ~ 3700C
Coated with parting agent such as Silicone
Clamped to the box or chamber
Fine sand is mixed with 2.5% ~ 4% thermosetting
resin binder (Phenol Formaldehyde)
Coats the sand
Box is rotated up side down
Assembly is then placed in an oven for short time for
complete curing
Shell hardens around the pattern
Two half-shells are bonded or clamped together
Prepare for pouring
Thickness of shell can be accurately determined by
controlling the time
Shell are light and thin
Sands are of much smaller grain and low
permeability
 Dump-Box Technique
Figure 11.13 A common
method of making shell
molds. Called dump-box
technique, the limitations are
the formation of voids in the
shell and peelback (when
sections of the shell fall off as
the pattern is raised).
Source: ASM International.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 11-38
 Expendable Pattern Casting

Figure 11.15
Schematic
illustration of the
expendable
pattern casting
process, also
known as lost
foam or
evaporative
casting.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 11-39
 Ceramic Molds
Figure 11.16 Sequence of operations in
making a ceramic mold. Source: Metals
Handbook, vol. 5, 8th ed.

Figure 11.17 A typical ceramic

mold (Shaw process) for casting
steel dies used in hot forging.
Source: Metals Handbook, vol.
5, 8th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 11-40
 Figure 11.18
Schematic
illustration of
investment
casting, (lost-
wax process).
Castings by this
method can be
made with very
fine detail and
from a variety of
metals. Source:
Steel Founders'
Society of
Investment America.

Casting

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 11-41
 Vacuum-Casting Process

Figure 11.21 Schematic illustration of the vacuum-casting process. Note that the mold has a
bottom gate. (a) Before and (b) after immersion of the mold into the molten metal. Source: From
R. Blackburn, "Vacuum Casting Goes Commercial," Advanced Materials and Processes, February
1990, p. 18. ASM International.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 11-42
 Pressure Casting

Figure 11.22 (a) The bottom-pressure casting process utilizes graphite molds for the production of steel
railroad wheels. Source: The Griffin Wheel Division of Amsted Industries Incorporated. (b) Gravity-
pouring method of casting a railroad wheel. Note that the pouring basin also serves as a riser. Railroad
wheels can also be manufactured by forging.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 11-43
 Hot- and Cold-Chamber Die-Casting

(a) (b)

Figure 11.23 (a) Schematic illustration of the hot-chamber die-casting process. (b) Schematic
illustration of the cold-chamber die-casting process. Source: Courtesy of Foundry Management and
Technology.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 11-44
 Cold-Chamber Die-Casting Machine

(a)

Figure 11.24 (a) Schematic illustration of a cold-chamber die-casting machine. These

machines are large compared to the size of the casting because large forces are required
to keep the two halves of the dies closed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 11-45
 Hot-Chamber Die-Casting Machine
(b)

Figure 11.24 (b) 800-ton hot-chamber die-casting machine, DAM 8005 (made in
Germany in 1998). This is the largest hot-chamber machine in the world and
costs about $1.25 million.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 11-46
 Die-Casting Die Cavities

Figure 11.25 Various types of cavities in a die-casting die. Source: Courtesy of

American Die Casting Institute.

Figure 11.26 Examples of

cast-in- place inserts in die
casting. (a) Knurled
bushings. (b) Grooved
threaded rod.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 11-47
 Properties and Typical Applications of
Common Die-Casting Alloys
TABLE
11.4
Ultima
te Yield Elongatio
tensile strengt n in 50
Allo strengt h mm (%) Applicatio
yAluminum 380 (3.5 Cu-8.5 320
h (MPa)
160 2. ns
Appliances ,automotive components ,
Si) 5 electrical motor frames and housings
(MPa)
13 (12 Si) 300 150 2. Complex shapes withthin walls,parts
5 requir ing s trengthat elevated
temperatures
Brass 858 (60 380 200 15 Plumbing fiztures ,lock hardware,
Cu) bushings ,ornamental cas tings
Magnes ium AZ91 B (9 Al-0.7 230 160 3 Power tools,automotive parts,sporting
Zn) goods
Zinc No.3 (4 280 -- 10 Automotive parts,office equipment,
Al) hous eholdutensils,building hardware ,
toys
5 (4 Al-1 320 -- 7 Appliances ,automotive parts
Cu) ,building hardware ,busines s
Source : Data from American Die Cas ting Ins equipment
titute

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 11-48
 Centrifugal Casting Process

Figure 11.27 Schematic

illustration of the centrifugal
casting process. Pipes,
cylinder liners, and similarly
shaped parts can be cast with
this process.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 11-49
 Semicentrifugal Casting

Figure 11.28 (a) Schematic illustration of the semicentrifugal casting process. Wheels with spokes can be
cast by this process. (b) Schematic illustration of casting by centrifuging. The molds are placed at the
periphery of the machine, and the molten metal is forced into the molds by centrifugal force.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 11-50
 Squeeze-Casting

Figure 11.29 Sequence of operations in the squeeze-casting process. This process combines the
advantages of casting and forging.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 11-51
 Types of Melting Furnaces

Figure 11.33 Two types of melting furnaces used in foundries: (a) crucible, and (b) cupola.

Kalpakjian Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 11-52