Study of Fouling in Heat Exchanger

P. R. Dhamangaonkar

Ref: Fundamentals of Heat Exchanger Design,

By Ramesh K. Shah and Duan P. Sekulic
Contents
Introduction
Classification

Effects of Fouling

Fouling Mechanism
Techniques to prevent Fouling

Conclusions

References
 Introduction
Fouling is an accumulation of undesirable material (deposits) on heat
exchanger surfaces.
Undesirable material : crystals, sediments, polymers, coking products,
inorganic salts, biological growth, corrosion products etc
Fouling is a synergistic consequence of transient mass, momentum
and heat transfer phenomena involved with exchanger fluids and
surfaces, and depends significantly on heat exchanger operation
conditions.
In general, fouling results in:
* a reduction in thermal performance
* an increase in pressure drop, may promote corrosion
* and may result in eventual failures of some heat exchangers
During operation the heat transfer surface fouls resulting in increased thermal
resistance and often an increase in the pressure drop and pumping power as well.

Fig 1 -Shell-side crude oil fouling Fig 2- Crude oil fouling at tube ends
Thermal fouling (in the presence of a temperature gradient) means
accumulation of any undesirable deposition of a thermally
insulating material on a heat transfer surface occurring over a period
of time.
* Liquid-side fouling
* gas-side fouling

Fouling is very costly since it

(1) increases capital costs
(2) increases maintenance costs
(3) results in loss of production
(4) increases energy losses
A general practice is to include the effect of fouling on the exchanger
thermal performance by adding thermal resistances of fouling layers
in the thermal circuit using empirical data.
The problem, though, is that this simplified modeling approach does
not (and cannot) reflect a real transient nature of the fouling process.
The current practice is to use fouling factors or fouling unit thermal
resistances from TEMA Standards (1999) (see Section 13.3 and Table
9.4 for tubular and shell-and-tube heat exchangers).
 Fouling Mechanisms
There are six types of liquid-side fouling mechanisms:

(1) precipitation or crystallization fouling

(2) particulate fouling
(3) chemical reaction fouling
(4) corrosion fouling
(5) biological fouling, and
(6) freezing (solidification) fouling
 Precipitation or Crystallization Fouling
In precipitation or crystallization fouling, the dominant mechanism is
the precipitation of dissolved salts in the fluid on the heat transfer
surface when the surface concentration exceeds the solubility limit.
Precipitation of salts can occur within the process fluid, in the thermal
boundary layer, or at the fluidsurface (foulingfilm) interface.
It generally occurs with aqueous solutions and other liquids of
soluble salts which are either being heated or cooled.
When the solution contains normal solubility salts (the salt solubility
and concentration decrease with decreasing temperature such as wax
deposits, gas hydrates and freezing of water/water vapor), the
precipitation fouling occurs on the cold surface (i.e., by cooling the
solution).
For inverse solubility salts (such as calcium and magnesium salts), the
precipitation of salt occurs with heating the solution.
 Precipitation/crystallization fouling is common when untreated water,
seawater, geothermal water, brine, aqueous solutions of caustic soda,
and other salts are used in heat exchangers.
This fouling is characterized by deposition of divalent salts in cooling
water systems.
Some types:
Scale: Hard and tenacious
Sludge, soft scale, or powdery deposit: Porous and mushy

Process of Crystallization:
a) Nucleation
b) Diffusion
c) Removal

All these phenomena are controlled by numerous factors, the most

dominant being local temperature and temperature gradient levels,
composition of the fluid including concentration of soluble species.
 Crystallization Fouling
Crystallization arises primarily from the presence of dissolved
inorganic salts in the process stream that exhibits super-saturation
during heating or cooling.

Common Solution: reducing the temperature of the heat transfer

surface often softens the deposits.
 Particulate Fouling
Particulate fouling refers to the deposition of solids suspended in a
fluid onto a heat transfer surface.
If the settling occurs due to gravity, the resulting particulate fouling is
called sedimentation fouling.
Particulate fouling may be defined as the accumulation of particles
from heat exchanger working fluids (liquids and/or gaseous
suspensions) on the heat transfer surface.
Most often, this type of fouling involves deposition of corrosion
products dispersed in fluids, clay and mineral particles in river water,
suspended solids in cooling water, soot particles of incomplete
combustion, magnetic particles in economizers, deposition of salts in
desalination systems, deposition of dust particles in air coolers,
particulates partially present in fire-side (gas-side) fouling of boilers,
and so on.
 Particulate Fouling
The particulate fouling caused by deposition of corrosion products is
influenced by the following factors: metal corrosion process factors
(at heat transfer surface), release and deposition of the corrosion
products on the surface concentration of suspended particles,
temperature conditions on the fouled surface (heated or non-heated),
and heat flux at the heat transfer surface.

Common Solution: velocity control

 Chemical Reaction Fouling
Chemical reaction fouling is referred to as the deposition of material
(fouling precursors) produced by chemical reactions within the
process fluid, in the thermal boundary layer, or at the fluidsurface
(foulingfilm) interface in which the heat transfer surface material is
not a reactant or participant.
The heat transfer surface may act as a catalyst as in cracking, coking,
polymerization, and autoxidation.
This fouling mechanism is a consequence of an unwanted chemical
reaction that takes place during the heat transfer process e.g.
deposition of coke in petrochemical industries in cracking furnaces.
The deposits from chemical reaction fouling may promote corrosion at
the surface if the formation of the protective oxide layer is inhibited.
All fouling deposits may promote corrosion.
Common Solution: reducing the temperature between the fluid and
the heat transfer surface
 Corrosion Fouling
The heat transfer surface itself reacts with the process fluid or
chemicals present in the process fluid.
Its constituents or trace materials are carried by the fluid in the
exchanger, and it produces corrosion products that deposit on the
surface.
Corrosion fouling is dependent on the selection of exchanger surface
material and can be avoided with the right choice of materials such as
expensive alloys
Corrosion fouling is prevalent in many applications where chemical
reaction fouling takes place and the protective oxide layer is not
formed on the surface.
 Corrosion Fouling
The important factors for corrosion fouling are:
the chemical properties of the fluids and heat transfer surface
oxidizing potential and alkalinity
local temperature and heat flux magnitude and
mass flow rate of the working fluid

Common Solution: material selection

 Bio-fouling
Biological fouling or bio-fouling results from the deposition,
attachment, and growth of macro or microorganisms to the heat
transfer surface.
Biological fouling can be divided into two main subtypes of fouling:
1. Microbial fouling: accumulation of microorganisms such as algae,
fungi, yeasts, bacteria, and molds
2. Macrobial fouling represents accumulation of macro-organisms
such as clams, barnacles, mussels, and vegetation as found in
seawater or estuarine cooling water.
Microbial fouling precedes macrobial deposition.
Biological fouling is generally in the form of a bio-film or a slime
layer on the surface that is uneven, filamentous, and deformable but
difficult to remove.
Exist primarily in the temperature range 0 to 900C (32 to 1940F) and
thrive in the temperature range 20 to 500C (68 to 1220F).
 Bio-fouling
Biological fouling or bio-fouling results from the deposition,
attachment, and growth of macro or microorganisms to the heat
transfer surface.
Biological fouling can be divided into two main subtypes of fouling:
1. Microbial fouling: accumulation of microorganisms such as algae,
fungi, yeasts, bacteria, and molds
2. Macrobial fouling represents accumulation of macro-organisms
such as clams, barnacles, mussels, and vegetation as found in
seawater or estuarine cooling water.
Microbial fouling precedes macrobial deposition.
Biological fouling is generally in the form of a bio-film or a slime
layer on the surface that is uneven, filamentous, and deformable but
difficult to remove.
Exist primarily in the temperature range 0 to 900C (32 to 1940F) and
thrive in the temperature range 20 to 500C (68 to 1220F).
Bio-fouling
Deposition and growth of material of a biological origin on a
heat transfer surface results in bio-fouling.
Such material may include microorganisms (e.g., bacteria,
algae and molds) and their products, and the resulting fouling
is known as microbial fouling.

Common Solution: material selection

 Freezing (Solidification) Fouling.
Due to freezing of a liquid or some of its constituents, or deposition
of solids on a sub-cooled heat transfer surface as a consequence of
liquidsolid or vaporsolid phase change in a gas stream.
Formation of ice on a heat transfer surface during chilled water
production or cooling of moist air, deposits formed in phenol coolers,
and deposits formed during cooling of mixtures of substances such as
paraffin are some examples of solidification fouling.
This fouling mechanism occurs at low temperatures, usually
ambient and below depending on local pressure conditions.
The main factors affecting solidification fouling are mass flow rate of
the working fluid, temperature and crystallization conditions, surface
conditions, and concentration of the solid precursor in the fluid.
 Freezing (Solidification) Fouling.
Due to freezing of a liquid or some of its constituents, or deposition
of solids on a sub-cooled heat transfer surface as a consequence of
liquidsolid or vaporsolid phase change in a gas stream.
Formation of ice on a heat transfer surface during chilled water
production or cooling of moist air, deposits formed in phenol coolers,
and deposits formed during cooling of mixtures of substances such as
paraffin are some examples of solidification fouling.
This fouling mechanism occurs at low temperatures, usually
ambient and below depending on local pressure conditions.
The main factors affecting solidification fouling are mass flow rate of
the working fluid, temperature and crystallization conditions, surface
conditions, and concentration of the solid precursor in the fluid.
 Combined Fouling

Occurs in many applications, where more than one fouling

mechanism is present and the fouling problem becomes very
complex with their synergistic effects.
Some combined fouling mechanisms found in industrial applications:
Particulate fouling combined with bio-fouling, crystallization, and
chemical-reaction fouling
Crystallization fouling combined with chemical-reaction fouling
Condensation of organic/inorganic vapors combined with
particulate fouling in gas streams
Crystallization fouling of mixed salts
Combined fouling by asphaltene precipitation, pyrolysis,
polymerization, and/or inorganic deposition in crude oil
Corrosion fouling combined with bio-fouling, crystallization, or
chemical-reaction fouling
 Combined Fouling

Occurs in many applications, where more than one fouling

mechanism is present and the fouling problem becomes very
complex with their synergistic effects.
Some combined fouling mechanisms found in industrial applications:
Particulate fouling combined with bio-fouling, crystallization, and
chemical-reaction fouling
Crystallization fouling combined with chemical-reaction fouling
Condensation of organic/inorganic vapors combined with
particulate fouling in gas streams
Crystallization fouling of mixed salts
Combined fouling by asphaltene precipitation, pyrolysis,
polymerization, and/or inorganic deposition in crude oil
Corrosion fouling combined with bio-fouling, crystallization, or
chemical-reaction fouling
Single-Phase Liquid-Side Fouling
Single-phase liquid-side fouling is most frequently caused by (1)
precipitation of minerals from the flowing liquid, (2) deposition of
various particles, (3) biological fouling, and (4) corrosion fouling.
Other fouling mechanisms are also present.
Influence of Operating variables on Liquid Side Fouling

Source: Data from Cannas (1986)

When the value of an operating variable is increased, it increases (), decreases
(), or has no effect ()on the specific fouling mechanism listed. Dashes
indicate that no influence of these variables is reported in the literature.
Single-Phase Gas-Side Fouling
Gas-side fouling may be caused by precipitation (scaling), particulate
deposition, corrosion, chemical reaction, and freezing.

Influence of Operating variables on Gas Side Fouling

Source: Data from Cannas (1986)

When the value of an operating variable is increased, it increases (), decreases
(), or has no effect ()on the specific fouling mechanism listed. Dashes
indicate that no influence of these variables is reported in the literature.
Fouling in Compact Exchangers
Small channels associated with compact heat exchangers have very
high shear rates. This reduces fouling significantly.

However, small channel size creates a problem of plugging the

passages. To avoid plugging, the particle size must be restricted
Sequential Events in Fouling
Initiation
Transport

(a) Diffusion
(b) Electrophoresis
(c) Thermophoresis
(d) Diffusionphoresis
(e) Sedimentation
(f) Inertial impaction
(g) Turbulent downsweeps
Attachment
Removal
Aging

Source: Epstein (1978)

Initiation

Surface conditioning
Surface temperature, material, finish, roughness and
coating strongly influence initial delay, induction/
incubation period.
Surface roughness tends to decrease delay period.
Roughness projection leads crystal nucleation and groves
provide regions for particulate deposition.
Time dependence of the fouling resistance.
Initiation of the fouling, the first
event in the fouling process, is
preceded by a delay period or
induction period d.
The basic mechanism involved
during this period is heterogeneous
nucleation, d is shorter with a
higher nucleation rate.

The factors affecting d are temperature, fluid velocity, composition

of the fouling stream, and nature and condition of the heat exchanger
surface.
Low-energy surfaces (unwettable) exhibit longer induction periods
than those of high-energy surfaces (wettable).
In crystallization fouling, d tends to decrease with increasing degree
of super-saturation.
In chemical reaction fouling, d appears to decrease with increasing
surface temperature.
In all fouling mechanisms, d decreases as the surface roughness
increases due to available suitable sites for nucleation, adsorption,
and adhesion.
Transport

Fouling substances from the bulk fluid are transported to

the heat transfer surface.
Transport is accomplished by diffusion, sedimentation
and thermophoresis,.
The difference between fouling species, oxygen or
reactant concentration in the bulk fluid (Cb) and that in
the fluid adjacent to the heat transfer surface(Cs), results
in transport by diffusion.
The local deposition flux, md=hD(Cb-Cs). hD is obtained
from Sherwood Number and depends on flow and
geometric properties.
Transport contd..
Sedimentation: Because of gravity particulate matter in a
fluid is transported to the inclined or horizontal surface.
It is important in application with heavy particles in
liquid and with low velocities.
Thermophoresis: The movement of small particles in
fluid stream in presence of temperature gradient.
Cold walls attract colloidal particles while hot walls
repels.
It is important for particles below 5m and is dominant at
about 0.1 m.
Other processes such as electrophoresis, inertial
impaction and turbulent downsweeps are also present.
 Attachment
It is the phenomenon in which part of the transported fouling
material attaches to the surface.
This process is considerably uncertain.
Forces acting on the particles, density, size of the particle and
surface condition is important.
Three interrelated factors play a crucial role in the attachment
process:
(a) surface conditions (b) surface forces and (c) sticking
probability
(b) surface conditions important for attachment are the surface
free energy, wettability (contact angle, spreadability), and heat
of immersion
(c) surface forces: the intermolecular attraction between nonpolar
molecules and is always attractive.
(d) sticking probability: the fraction of particles that reach the
wall and stay there before any re-entrainment occurs.
Removal:
Some material is removed immediately after deposition
and some latter.
The forces at the interface of fluid and deposits are
responsible for removal.
Shear force depends on velocity gradients at surface,
viscosity and surface roughness.
Dissolution, erosion and spalling are the plausible
mechanisms.
Dissolution removes material in ionic form, Spalling is
affected by thermal stress and removes material as large
mass.
Aging:
Aging begins with deposition of material on surface.
The mechanical properties of the deposits can change
because of changes in crystal and chemical structure.
Corrosion at the surface may weaken the bio-fouling
layer.
Chemical deposits at the surface change mechanical
strength.
 Modeling of Fouling
There is not a single, unified theory to model the fouling process
wherein all six types of fouling mechanisms are considered.
In many processes more than one fouling mechanism exists with
synergistic effects.
However, a few variables that would most probably control any
fouling process:
(1) fluid velocity
(2) fluid and heat transfer surface temperatures and temperature
differences
(3) physical and chemical properties of the fluid
(4) Heat transfer surface properties, and
(5) geometry of the fluid flow passage
(6) concentration of foulant or precursor, impurities, heat transfer
surface roughness, surface chemistry, fluid chemistry (pH level,
oxygen concentration, etc.), pressure, and so on
 For a given fluidsurface combination, the two most important design
variables are:
(i) the fluid velocity and (ii) heat transfer surface temperature.
In general,
Higher flow velocities less foulant deposition and/or more
pronounced deposit erosion.

may accelerate corrosion of the surface by removing the heat

transfer surface material.

Higher surface temperatures chemical reaction, corrosion, crystal

formation (with inverse solubility salts), and polymerization, but
reduce bio-fouling and prevent freezing and precipitation of normal
solubility salts.

Consequently, it is frequently recommended that the surface

temperature be maintained low.
 For a given fluidsurface combination, the two most important design
variables are:
(i) the fluid velocity and (ii) heat transfer surface temperature.
In general,
Higher flow velocities less foulant deposition and/or more
pronounced deposit erosion.

may accelerate corrosion of the surface by removing the heat

transfer surface material.

Higher surface temperatures chemical reaction, corrosion, crystal

formation (with inverse solubility salts), and polymerization, but
reduce bio-fouling and prevent freezing and precipitation of normal
solubility salts.

Consequently, it is frequently recommended that the surface

temperature be maintained low.
The quantitative effect of fouling on heat transfer is estimated by
using the concept of fouling resistance and calculating the overall
heat transfer coefficient under both fouling and clean conditions.

The cleanliness factor: An additional parameter for determining this

influence.

It is defined as a ratio of an overall heat transfer coefficient

determined for fouling conditions to that determined for clean
(fouling-free) operating conditions.

The effect of fouling on the pressure drop can be determined by the

reduced free-flow area due to fouling and the change in the friction
factor, if any, due to fouling.
The quantitative effect of fouling on heat transfer is estimated by
using the concept of fouling resistance and calculating the overall
heat transfer coefficient under both fouling and clean conditions.

The cleanliness factor: An additional parameter for determining this

influence.

It is defined as a ratio of an overall heat transfer coefficient

determined for fouling conditions to that determined for clean
(fouling-free) operating conditions.

The effect of fouling on the pressure drop can be determined by the

reduced free-flow area due to fouling and the change in the friction
factor, if any, due to fouling.
Effects of Fouling
Fouling layer has low value of k , which increases resistance
to the heat transfer.
As C/s area reduces in the formula

Q=U*A*T
So the heat transfer decreases.
Increase in pressure drop & pumping power.

Clean Process Fluid Process Fluid

Fouling
surface
layer

Heat
Heat
Design Approach
1. Rf & Uoverall calculations.

2. Impact on heat transfer performance

- cleanliness factor
CF= Uf/Uc=1/(1+Rf*Uc)

3. Empirical data
-TEMA Standards
Impact of Fouling on Exchanger Heat Transfer Performance
The influence of fouling on exchanger heat transfer performance can
be evaluated in terms of either
(1) required increased surface area for the same q andTm,
(2) required increased mean temperature difference for the same q
and A, or
(3) reduced heat transfer rate for the same A and Tm.

In the first two cases, the heat transfer rate in a heat exchanger
under clean and fouled conditions are the same.
For a clean heat transfer surface,

For a fouled heat transfer surface,

ho,f =ho,c ;hi,f =hi,c; ;Ai,f =Ai,c =Ai, and

Ao,f =Ao,c =Ao.

When q and A are the same andTm is different for clean and fouled
exchangers,
Effect of material on fouling resistance:-
- May promote or inhibit reactive process.
- Polished surfaces resist fouling but corrosion
takes place.
 Effect of Fluid velocity(Vf) on fouling
resistance:-
- Increase in Vf decreases Rf
- Heat transfer coefficient increases with Vf
Techniques to Control Fouling

Surface cleaning technique

1. Continuous cleaning
2. Periodic cleaning

. Techniques to control
1. Crystallization fouling
2. Particulate fouling
3. Biological fouling
4. Corrosion fouling
High velocity water jets
Conclusions

The influence of Fouling has to be taken into account

not only during operation but also during design.
Fouling adds thermal resistance to heat transfer in a
heat exchanger as well as increases pressure drop.
Increase in fluid velocity decreases fouling resistance