ANTENNA

a metallic conductor system capable

of radiating and receiving
electromagnetic waves
used to interface a transmitter to
free space and free space to a
receiver
a transitional structure between free-
space and a guiding structure
a passive and reciprocal device
Passive cannot actually amplify a
signal
Definition of Terms

Radiation Pattern a polar diagram

or graph representing field strengths
or power densities at various angular
position relative to the antenna
- the relative distribution of radiated
power as a function of direction in
space a line drawn to join points in
space which have equal field
intensity due to the source
Major lobe primary beam and is in a
90direction; also called front lobe; it
propagates and receives the most energy
Minor lobe secondary beam; represent
undesired radiation or reception
Side lobe lobes adjacent to the front
lobe
Back lobes lobes in a direction exactly
opposite the front lobe
 Line of shoot line bisecting the
major lobe or pointing from the
center of the antenna in the direction
of maximum radiation

Front-to-back ratio ratio of the front

lobe power to the back lobe power
Front-to-side ratio ratio of the front lobe
power to the side lobe power
 FACTORS WHICH
DETERMINE THE
RADIATION PATTERN OF
AN ANTENNA
a. Antenna
height
b. Power losses

c. Terminations
at its end

d. Thickness of the antenna

wire
Near field refers to the field pattern
that is close to the antenna; also called
induction field; it is defined as the area
within D2/; power is stored temporarily
and return back to the antenna
Far field field pattern that is at a great
distance; power radiates outward and
never returns to the antenna; also
called radiation field; more important of
the two
FIELDS OF AN ANTENNA
 INDUCTION FIELD TRANSITION ZONE RADIATION FIELD

Considered to extend Considered to

out from the antenna extend out from a
to a distance of D
2/8 Zone between distance of 2D2/
the two(2)
regions
Near Field or Fresnel Far Field or
Region Fraunhoffer Region
 2. LOSS RESISTANCE, Rd
1. RADIATION
RESISTANCE, Rr
AC resistance Antenna and ground
resistance
ANTENNA
RESISTANCE The ratio of the
power radiated by Losses in imperfect
the antenna to the dielectric very near
The ratio of the the antenna
applied voltage square of the
to the flowing current at the
current it isfeedpoint.
a resistance Discharge or corona
that, if it replaced effects
the antenna, would
dissipate exactly the
Eddy current loss
same amount of
power that the
antenna radiates
Input impedance ZA - The ratio of the
voltage to the current at the antenna
terminals (Thevenin equivalent circuit)
Beamwidth - The angle between the
two directions in which the radiated
power is half of the maximum value of
the beam (-3dB).
Bandwidth - Half-power frequency
band; the operating frequency range of
an antenna
Antenna efficiency, ratio of the power
radiated by an antenna to the sum of the
power radiated and the power dissipated
or the ratio of the power radiated by the
antenna to the total input power.
Mathematically,
= Pr / (Pr + Pd) x 100
= Rr / (Rr + Re) x 100
where: Rr = radiation resistance
Re = effective antenna resistance
Antenna Polarization

- the orientation of the electric field radiated from the

antenna; could be

- linear
- vertical
- horizontal
- elliptical
- circular
Feedpoint the point in the antenna where the

transmission line is connected

POLARIZATION

Space orientation of The electric field

the waves that the vector is always
antenna radiates parallel to the
antenna elements.
 PHYSICAL LENGTH ELECTRICAL LENGTH

Actual length of the Dependent upon the

antenna velocity coefficient or
velocity factor
L =/2; = c/f
L=k
/2 is the shortest length
of a conductor which will
resonate at a given where k is the dielectric
frequency constant
 EFFECTS OF GROUND ON ANTENNAS

Whereas an ungrounded antenna with

its image forms an antenna array, the
bottom of the grounded antenna is
joined to the top of the image; the
system acts as an antenna of double
size.
 GROUND SCREEN

A network of buried wires directly

under the antenna, consisting of
a large number of radials
extending from the base of the
tower, like spokes on a wheel,
and placed 15 and 30 cm below
the ground.
COUNTERPOISE

A substitute for ground screen in

areas of low conductivity, i.e.
rock, mountains and antennas on
top of buildings
ANTENNA HEIGHT The actual antenna height should at least
be /4, but where this is not possible, the
effective height should correspond to /4.

TOP LOADING A good method of increasing radiation

resistance by having a horizontal portion at
the top of the antenna

Effect: to increase the current at the base of

the antenna and to make the current
distribution more uniform

Antennas behave as though (electrically) they

EFFECTIVE
were longer than their physical length
LENGTH

END EFFECT The result of physical antennas having finite

thickness, instead of being infinitely thin.
 ANTENNA
A network composed of reactances and
COUPLING transformers, which may be lumped or
distributed, to provide impedance matching
To tune out the reactive component of the
antenna impedance
REASONS FOR
COUPLING To provide the transmitter with the correct value
of load resistance
To prevent illegal radiation of spurious
frequencies
ANTENNA COUPLERS

The antennas are coupled directly to their

Direct Coupler
transmitters

Coupler
Affords a wider reactance range, giving
adequate harmonic suppression
Symmetrical
Coupler Used for balanced lines
 IMPEDANCE MATCHING

Stub Matching

Accomplished by connecting the

coax or twin lead to the stub and
sliding the connections up or
down the stub until the proper
SWR is indicated by a meter
connected in the system.

Delta Matching

Accomplished by spreading
the ends of the feedline and
adjusting the spacing until
optimum performance is
reached.
 IMPEDANCE MATCHING

Gamma Matching

A sliding clamp is included

in the assembly to permit
fine tuning for minimum
SWR at the time of
installation
Quarter A section of transmission
Wave line one quarter
Matching
wavelength long placed
between the load and
the line
BALUN
Used to connect an
unbalanced (coaxial line) to a
balanced antenna
 CURRENT FED (LOW Z FEED)

An antenna is said to be current fed

if it is fed at the point of current
maximum
Includes all feed point impedances
below 600 ohms

Ex. Center fed half wave dipole or

Marconi antenna

VOLTAGE FED (HIGH Z FEED)

An antenna is said to be voltage fed

if it is fed at the point of voltage
maximum
Includes all feed point impedances in
excess of 600 ohms

Ex. Center fed full wave dipole

 ISOTROPIC ANTENNA ELEMENTARY DOUBLET

a standard reference antenna , A theoretical antenna shorter

radiating equally in all than a wavelength used as a
directions, so that the radiation standard to which all other
pattern is spherical. antenna characteristics can be
compared

= 60 le I sin / r
Where angle of axis and point of maximum radiation
antenna length Le antenna length

I antenna current
r antenna length
 DIPOLE

An antenna made up of two

wires bent at 90 degrees to each
other so as to be in the same
line and signal is fed at the
center
HALF WAVE DIPOLE

Length is /2 and radiation

pattern is a toroid
(bidirectional)
 NON-RESONANT ANTENNA

One in which there are no standing

waves
Radiation pattern is directional

Standing waves are suppressed by the

use of a correct termination to ensure
that no power is reflected, so that only a
forward traveling wave will exist.

LONG WIRE ANTENNA

Lengths in the order of several

wavelengths
When an antenna is 2 or more
wavelengths long, it provides gain and a
multilobe radiation pattern.
When terminated at one end, it becomes
unidirectional.
 RHOMBIC ANTENNA

Consists of non-resonant antenna elements

arranged differently, i.e. planar rhombus

Length of equal radiators = 2 to

8 s
Angle of tilt: 40 to 75
Rt = 800 ohms
Rin = 650 to 700 ohms
Non-resonant antenna used for long
distance sky wave transmission or
reception of horizontally polarized
waves over distances from 200 to
over 3000 miles at frequencies from
4 to 22 MHz.
 RESONANT ANTENNA

Standing waves exist, caused by

the presence of both a reflected
traveling wave and the forward
wave.
Antenna whose length is a
multiple of /4s
 HERTZ ANTENNA

An antenna system in which the

ground is not an essential part

Half wave antenna used for

frequencies above 2 MHz

Half Wave Dipole

MARCONI ANTENNA

Grounded Quarter
Wavelength antenna

Quarter Wavelength
antenna used for
frequencies below 2 MHz;
omnidirectional
Vertical Monopole
 ANTENNA ARRAY PARASITIC ELEMENT

A radiating system consisting of

individual radiators or elements
placed close together so as to be
within each others induction field
DRIVEN ELEMENT
Element of an array
connected to the output of the
transmitter
REFLECTOR DIRECTOR
Radiation not directly
connected to the output of
the transmitter
Receives energy through
the induction field of a
driven element

A parasitic element A parasitic element

longer than the shorter than the
driven element and driven one from
close to it reduces which it receives
signal strength in its energy; tends to
own direction and increase radiation
increases it in the in its own direction
opposite direction.
 BROADSIDE ARRAY

Simplest array which consists of a number of

dipoles of equal size, equally spaced along a
straight line with all dipoles fed in the same
phase from the same source.
Typical antenna length: 2 to
10 s
Typical spacing: /2 or /4
Number of elements: dozens
ENDFIRE ARRAY

Physical arrangement is the

same as that of the broadside
array
The magnitude of the current in
each element is still the same as
in every other element, there is
now a phase difference between
these currents.
 TURNSTILE ARRAY

Consists of two
horizontal, half wave
antennas mounted at
right angles to each
other

YAGI UDA ANTENNA

An array consisting of a driven element and

one or more parasitic elements arranged
collinearly and close together.
 FOLDED DIPOLE

Single antenna
which consists of 2
elements, one is fed
directly and the
other coupled
conductively at the
ends.
LOG PERIODIC ANTENNA

Main feature is frequency

independence for both radiation
resistance and pattern
Bandwidths of 10:1 are
achievable with ease

Radiation patterns: uni and

bidirectional
 LOG PERIODIC ANTENNA

Main feature is frequency

independence for both
radiation resistance and
pattern

PYRAMIDAL ANTENNA

It looks and works in much the

same way as a standard log
periodic antenna, with one big
difference: the two halves of the
transmission line are separated
and positioned as a V, so each
half of the transmission line is in
effect a single wire transmission
line.
 UHF AND MICROWAVE
ANTENNAS

PARABOLIC ANTENNA

Works on the principle of a

parabola

Parabola a plane curve defined as

the locus of a point which moves so
that its distance from another point
(called the focus) plus its distance
from a straight line (directrix) is
constant.
 PARABOLIC ANTENNA

All waves coming from the

source and reflected by the
parabola will travel in the
same distance by the time
they reach the directrix, no
matter from what point on
the parabola they are
reflected.
CASSEGRAIN ANTENNA

an antenna in which the radiator is

mounted at or near the surface of a
concave main reflector and is aimed
at a convex secondary reflector
slightly inside the focus of the main
reflector.
 Where:
BEAMWIDTH
D= mouth diameter, meters
= 70 / D 0 = beamwidth between nulls,
degrees
= beamwidth between half power
0 = 2
points, degrees
= wavelength,
meters
GAIN OF A PARABOLIC
ANTENNA
Ap = 6 ( D/)2

Where:
D= mouth diameter,
Ap =meters
Power Gain
= wavelength, meters
 HORN ANTENNA

Ideal as primary feed antenna

for parabolic reflectors and
lenses

LENS ANTENNA

Used as a collimator of frequencies

in excess of 3 GHz
 HELICAL ANTENNA

Broadband VHF and UHF antenna

which is used when it is desired to
provide circular polarization
characteristics
Consists of a loosely wound helix,
backed up by a ground plane, which
is simply a screen made of chicken
wire
DISCONE ANTENNA

A combination of a disk and a cone

in close proximity
Characterized by an enormous
bandwidth for both input impedance
and radiation pattern
A constant angle, low gain antenna;
omnidirectional
 LOOP ANTENNA

Used for direction finding,

because they do not
radiate in a direction at
right angles to the plane
of the loop.
For portable domestic receivers
Circular or square shaped
PHASED ARRAY

Group of antennas,
connected to one
transmitter or receiver,
whose radiation beam
can be adjusted
electronically without
physically moving
parts; used in radars.
 WHIP ANTENNA

the most common example of a

monopole antenna, an antenna with a
single driven element and a ground
plane.
The whip antenna is a stiff but flexible
wire mounted, usually vertically, with
one end adjacent to a ground plane.
SLOT ANTENNA

consists of a metal surface,

usually a flat plate, with a hole or
slot cut out.
When the plate is driven as an
antenna by a driving frequency,
the slot radiates electromagnetic
waves in similar way to a dipole
antenna.
 NOTCH ANTENNA

An open ended slot antenna

Since the currents are zero at the

middle of the slot, we may cut the
ground plane here to make a notch
antenna.
ANTENNA SUPPORTING
STRUCTURES
POLE

Used to signify one piece of

structure similar to the common
telephone pole

MAST TOWER

Used to designate a Applied to a

structure made of very large, high
metal or wood structure, which
which may be in most cases,
either in a form of a is constructed
one piece or of metal
sectionalized
structure
 Antenna Gain
Directive gain, D the ratio of the power density radiated
in a particular direction to the power density radiated to
the same point by a reference antenna, assuming both
antennas are radiating the same amount of power.

D = P / Pref
Where: P = power density at some point with a given
antenna
Pref = power density at some point with a reference
antenna

Directivity maximum directive gain

Power Gain, Ap is the same as the directive
gain except that the total power fed to the
antenna is used (that is, antenna efficiency is
taken into account).
Ap = D
Ap = 10 log (P x ) / Pref
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) is
the equivalent power that an isotropic antenna
would have to radiate to achieve the same power
density in the chosen direction at a given point
as another antenna
 List of Formula
EIRP = Pi x Ap
P = Pr At / 4 R2

POWER GAIN OF HELICAL ANTENNA

Ap = 10 log [ 15 ( D / ) 2 (NS)/ ]
= 52 / ( D / ) (NS/ )
Ap (dB) = 20 log f (MHz) + 20 log D
(meters) 42.2
Ap = ( D / )
2
Isotropic antenna antenna that
radiates and receives signal in all
directions therefore has a gain of 0
dB; used as a reference antenna
HERTZIAN DIPOLE: 1.5 : 1 HALF WAVE DIPOLE: 1.64 :
(1.76 dB) 1 (2.15 dB)

The longer the antenna, the higher the

NOTES: directive gain

Non resonant antennas have higher

directive gain than resonant antennas

The directive gain of all practical

antennas is greater than unity
Problems
1. If a transmit antenna has a directive
gain At = 10 and radiated power Pr
= 100 W, determine:
a. EIRP
b. Power density at a point 10 km away
c. Power density had an isotropic
antenna been used with the same
input power and efficiency
2. For an antenna with input power
Pi = 100 W, rms current I = 2A
and the effective resistance, Re =
2 ohms, determine:
a. antennas radiation resistance, Rr
b. antennas efficiency,
c. power radiated from the antenna,
Pr
3. Determine the power gain in
decibels for an antenna with directive
gain D=40 and efficiency = 65%.

4. Determine the effective isotropic

radiated power for an antenna with
directivity D = 33 dB, efficiency =
82% and input power Pi = 100 W.
5. Determine the power density at a
point 30 km from an antenna that
has an input power Pi = 40 W,
efficiency = 75% and directivity D
= 16 dB.

6. Determine the efficiency for an

antenna with radiated power Pr = 44
W, dissipated power, Pd = 0.8 W and
directive gain D = 400. Also,
determine the power gain.
7. Determine the power gain and
beamwidth for an end-fire helical
antenna with the following
parameters: helix diameter = 0.1m,
number of turns = 10, pitch = 0.05
m, frequency of operation = 500
MHz
8. Determine the (a) beamwidth, (b)
transmit power gain, (c) receive
power gain and (d) EIRP for an 2-m
diameter parabolic reflector with 10
Radiation Pattern of an
Infinitesimal Dipole
Radiation Pattern of a Circular Loop
Radiation Pattern of a Thin Dipole