10 m

Human height
1m

Light microscope
Length of some
nerve and
muscle cells
0.1 m
Chicken egg

1 cm

Frog egg
1 mm

Electron microscope
100 m
Most plant
and Animal cells
10 m
Nucleus
Most bacteria

Electron microscope
Mitochondrion
1m

100 nm Smallest bacteria

Viruses

10 nm Ribosomes

Proteins

Lipids
1 nm
Small molecules

Figure 6.2 0.1 nm Atoms

 Pili: attachment structures on
the surface of some prokaryotes
Nucleoid: region where the
cells DNA is located (not
enclosed by a membrane)
Ribosomes: organelles that
synthesize proteins
Plasma membrane: membrane
enclosing the cytoplasm
Cell wall: rigid structure outside
the plasma membrane
Capsule: jelly-like outer coating
Bacterial of many prokaryotes
chromosome 0.5 m

(a) A typical Flagella: locomotion (b) A thin section through the

rod-shaped bacterium organelles of bacterium Bacillus coagulans
some bacteria (TEM)
 Surface area increases while
total volume remains constant

5
1
1

Total surface area

(height width 6 150 750
number of sides
number of boxes)

Total volume
(height width length 1 125 125
number of boxes)

Surface-to-volume
ratio 6 12 6
(surface area volume)
 Outside of cell

Hydrophilic
region

Inside of cell
0.1 m
Hydrophobic
region
(a) TEM of a plasma
membrane. The Hydrophilic
plasma membrane, region Phospholipid Proteins
here in a red blood (b) Structure of the plasma membrane
cell, appears as a
pair of dark bands
separated by a
light band.
 WATER
Hydrophilic
head
Hydrophobic
tail

WATER
 Hydrophobic region
of protein

Phospholipid
bilayer

Hydrophobic region of protein

(a) Transport. (left) A protein that spans the membrane
may provide a hydrophilic channel across the
membrane that is selective for a particular solute.
(right) Other transport proteins shuttle a substance
from one side to the other by changing shape. Some
of these proteins hydrolyze ATP as an energy ssource
to actively pump substances across the membrane.
ATP

(b) Enzymatic activity. A protein built into the membrane Enzymes

may be an enzyme with its active site exposed to
substances in the adjacent solution. In some cases,
several enzymes in a membrane are organized as
a team that carries out sequential steps of a
metabolic pathway.

(c) Signal transduction. A membrane protein may have

a binding site with a specific shape that fits the shape Signal
of a chemical messenger, such as a hormone. The
external messenger (signal) may cause a
conformational change in the protein (receptor) that
relays the message to the inside of the cell.

Figure 7.9 Receptor

Secreted
protein

Membrane glycolipid
(a) Diffusion of one solute. The membrane Molecules of dye Membrane (cross section)
has pores large enough for molecules
of dye to pass through. Random
movement of dye molecules will cause
some to pass through the pores; this
will happen more often on the side
with more molecules. The dye diffuses
from where it is more concentrated
to where it is less concentrated
(called diffusing down a concentration
gradient). This leads to a dynamic
Net diffusion Net diffusion Equilibrium
equilibrium: The solute molecules
continue to cross the membrane,
but at equal rates in both directions.

Figure 7.11 A
(b) Diffusion of two solutes. Solutions of
two different dyes are separated by a
membrane that is permeable to both.
Each dye diffuses down its own concen-
tration gradient. There will be a net
diffusion of the purple dye toward the
left, even though the total solute
concentration was initially greater on
the left side.
Net diffusion Net diffusion Equilibrium

Net diffusion Net diffusion Equilibrium

Figure 7.11 B
 Lower Higher
concentration concentration Same concentration
of solute (sugar) of sugar of sugar

Selectively
permeable mem- Water molecules
brane: sugar mole- cluster around
cules cannot pass sugar molecules
through pores, but
water molecules can
More free water Fewer free water
molecules (higher molecules (lower
concentration) concentration)

Osmosis

Water moves from an area of higher
free water concentration to an area
of lower free water concentration
Hypotonic solution Isotonic solution Hypertonic solution

H2O H2O H2O

H2O

Lysed Normal Shriveled

H2O H2O H2O H2O

Turgid (normal) Flaccid Plasmolyzed

 EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID

Channel protein
Solute
CYTOPLASM

(a) A channel protein (purple) has a channel through which

water molecules or a specific solute can pass.
 Solute
Carrier protein

(b)
A carrier protein alternates between two conformations, moving a
solute across the membrane as the shape of the protein changes.
The protein can transport the solute in either direction, with the net
movement being down the concentration gradient of the solute.
1 Cytoplasmic Na+ binds to [Na+] high 2 Na+ binding stimulates
the sodium-potassium pump. [K+] low phosphorylation by ATP.
Na+ Na+

Na+ Na+

Na+
[Na ] low
+
P ATP
Na+
CYTOPLASM [K+] high ADP

Na+
Na+

Na+

3 K+ is released and Na+ K+ 4 Phosphorylation causes the

sites are receptive again; protein to change its conformation,
K + P
the cycle repeats. expelling Na+ to the outside.

K+

K+
K+
K+
5 Loss of the phosphate 6 Extracellular K+ binds to the
restores the proteins protein, triggering release of the
original conformation. Phosphate group.
Passive transport. Substances diffuse spontaneously
down their concentration gradients, crossing a
membrane with no expenditure of energy by the cell.
The rate of diffusion can be greatly increased by transport
proteins in the membrane.
Active transport. Some transport proteins
act as pumps, moving substances across a
membrane against their concentration
gradients. Energy for this work is usually
supplied by ATP.

Diffusion. Hydrophobic
molecules and (at a slow
rate) very small uncharged
polar molecules can diffuse
through the lipid bilayer.
ATP
Facilitated diffusion. Many
hydrophilic substances diffuse
through membranes with the
assistance of transport proteins,
either channel or carrier proteins.
 + EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID
ATP
+ H+

H+
Proton pump
H+
+
H+
+ H+

CYTOPLASM
+ H+
+

 +
ATP H+
H+
+

Proton pump H+
H+

+
H+
+ H+ Diffusion
Sucrose-H+ of H+
cotransporter
H+
+

+ Sucrose
EXTRACELLULAR
CYTOPLASM 1 m
FLUID
Pseudopodium

Pseudopodium
of amoeba

Food or
other particle Bacterium
Food
vacuole Food vacuole

An amoeba engulfing a bacterium via

phagocytosis (TEM).
PINOCYTOSIS
0.5 m
Plasma
membrane Pinocytosis vesicles
forming (arrows) in
a cell lining a small
blood vessel (TEM).

Vesicle
 RECEPTOR-MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS
Coat protein
Receptor
Coated
vesicle

Coated
Ligand pit

A coated pit
Coat and a coated
protein vesicle
formed
during
receptor-
mediated
endocytosis
(TEMs).

Plasma
membrane
0.25 m
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER) Nuclear envelope

Nucleolus NUCLEUS
Rough ER Smooth ER
Chromatin
Flagelium

Plasma membrane
Centrosome

CYTOSKELETON

Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules Ribosomes

Microvilli

Golgi apparatus

Peroxisome
In animal cells but not plant cells:
Lysosomes
Lysosome Centrioles
Mitochondrion Flagella (in some plant sperm)
 Nuclear envelope
Rough
Nucleolus endoplasmic
NUCLEUS
Chromatin reticulum Smooth
endoplasmic
Centrosome reticulum

Ribosomes (small brwon dots)

Central vacuole
Tonoplast
Golgi apparatus
Microfilaments
Intermediate
filaments

Microtubules

Mitochondrion
Peroxisome

Plasma membrane
Chloroplast
Cell wall

Plasmodesmata
Wall of adjacent cell
 Nucleus

Nucleus
1 m Nucleolus
Chromatin

Nuclear envelope:
Inner membrane
Outer membrane

Nuclear pore
Pore
complex
Rough ER
Surface of nuclear
envelope. Ribosome 1 m
0.25 m

Close-up of
nuclear
envelope

Pore complexes (TEM). Nuclear lamina (TEM).

Ribosomes Cytosol

Free ribosomes

Bound ribosomes

Large
subunit

Small
0.5 m subunit
TEM showing ER and ribosomes Diagram of a ribosome
 Smooth ER

Rough ER Nuclear
envelope

ER lumen
Cisternae
Ribosomes Transitional ER
Transport vesicle
Smooth ER Rough ER 200 m
cis face
(receiving side of
Golgi apparatus)

1 Vesicles move 2 Vesicles coalesce to 0.1 0 m

6 Vesicles also from ER to Golgi form new cis Golgi cisternae
transport certain
proteins back to ER Cisternae
3 Cisternal
maturation:
Golgi cisternae
move in a cis-
to-trans
direction
4 Vesicles form and
leave Golgi, carrying
specific proteins to
other locations or to
the plasma mem-
5 Vesicles transport specific brane for secretion
trans face
proteins backward to newer (shipping side of
Golgi cisternae Golgi apparatus)
 Lysosome containing
1m
two damaged organelles

Nucleus 1 m

Mitochondrion
fragment

Peroxisome
fragment

Lysosome

Lysosome fuses with Hydrolytic enzymes

vesicle containing digest organelle
Lysosome contains Food vacuole Hydrolytic damaged organelle components
active hydrolytic fuses with enzymes digest
enzymes lysosome food particles

Digestive
enzymes

Lysosome
Lysosome
Plasma membrane
Digestion
Digestion
Food vacuole Vesicle containing
damaged mitochondrion

(a) Phagocytosis: lysosome digesting food (b) Autophagy: lysosome breaking down damaged organelle
 Central vacuole

Cytosol

Tonoplast

Nucleus Central
vacuole
Cell wall
Chloroplast
5 m
 Mitochondrion

Intermembrane space
Outer
membrane

Free
ribosomes
in the
mitochondrial
matrix
Inner
membrane
Cristae

Matrix

Mitochondrial
DNA 100 m
 Chloroplast

Ribosomes
Stroma
Chloroplast
Inner and outer
DNA
membranes
Granum

1 m
Thylakoid
 Microtubule

Figure 6.20 0.25 m Microfilaments

 Vesicle
ATP
Receptor for
motor protein

Motor protein Microtubule

(ATP powered) of cytoskeleton
(a) Motor proteins that attach to receptors on organelles can walk
the organelles along microtubules or, in some cases, microfilaments.
Microtubule Vesicles 0.25 m

(b) Vesicles containing neurotransmitters migrate to the tips of nerve cell

axons via the mechanism in (a). In this SEM of a squid giant axon, two
vesicles can be seen moving along a microtubule. (A separate part of the
experiment provided the evidence that they were in fact moving.)
(a) Motion of flagella. A flagellum
usually undulates, its snakelike Direction of swimming
motion driving a cell in the same
direction as the axis of the
flagellum. Propulsion of a human
sperm cell is an example of
flagellatelocomotion (LM).

1 m
(b) Motion of cilia. Cilia have a back-
and-forth motion that moves the
cell in a direction perpendicular
to the axis of the cilium. A dense
nap of cilia, beating at a rate of
about 40 to 60 strokes a second,
covers this Colpidium, a
freshwater protozoan (SEM).

Figure 6.23 B
 Outer microtubule Plasma
doublet membrane
0.1 m
Dynein arms

Central
microtubule
Outer doublets
cross-linking
proteins inside
Microtubules
Radial
Plasma spoke
membrane
Basal body
(b)

0.5 m
0.1 m
(a) Triplet

(c)

Figure 6.24 A-C Cross section of basal body

 Microtubule
doublets ATP

Dynein arm
(a) Powered by ATP, the dynein arms of one microtubule doublet
grip the adjacent doublet, push it up, release, and then grip again.
If the two microtubule doublets were not attached, they would slide
Figure 6.25 A relative to each other.
 1 3

(c) Localized, synchronized activation of many dynein arms

probably causes a bend to begin at the base of the Cilium or
flagellum and move outward toward the tip. Many successive
bends, such as the ones shown here to the left and right,
result in a wavelike motion. In this diagram, the two central
microtubules and the cross-linking proteins are not shown.
 Microvillus

Plasma membrane

Microfilaments (actin
filaments)

Intermediate filaments

Figure 6.26 0.25 m

 Muscle cell

Actin filament

Myosin filament
Myosin arm

Figure 6.27 A (a) Myosin motors in muscle cell contraction.

 Cortex (outer cytoplasm):
gel with actin network

Inner cytoplasm: sol

with actin subunits
Extending
pseudopodium

(b) Amoeboid movement

 Central Plasma
vacuole membrane
of cell Secondary
cell wall
Primary
cell wall
Central
vacuole Middle
of cell lamella

1 m
Central vacuole
Cytosol
Plasma membrane
Plant cell walls

Figure 6.28 Plasmodesmata

 EXTRACELLULAR FLUID Polysaccharide
Collagen molecule
A proteoglycan
complex Carbo-
hydrates

Core
protein
Fibronectin

Proteoglycan
Plasma molecule
membrane Integrins

Micro- CYTOPLASM
Integrin
filaments
Figure 6.29
 Cell walls

Interior
of cell

Interior
of cell

Figure 6.30 0.5 m Plasmodesmata Plasma membranes


Tight junctions prevent
fluid from moving
across a layer of cells
TIGHT JUNCTIONS
At tight junctions, the membranes of
Tight junction
neighboring cells are very tightly pressed
against each other, bound together by
specific proteins (purple). Forming continu-
ous seals around the cells, tight junctions
prevent leakage of extracellular fluid across
A layer of epithelial cells.
0.5 m

DESMOSOMES
Desmosomes (also called anchoring
Tight junctions junctions) function like rivets, fastening cells
Intermediate Together into strong sheets. Intermediate
filaments Filaments made of sturdy keratin proteins
Desmosome Anchor desmosomes in the cytoplasm.

Gap
1 m
junctions GAP JUNCTIONS
Gap junctions (also called communicating
junctions) provide cytoplasmic channels from
one cell to an adjacent cell. Gap junctions
Extracellular consist of special membrane proteins that
Space matrix surround a pore through which ions, sugars,
between Plasma membranes Gap junction amino acids, and other small molecules may
cells pass. Gap junctions are necessary for commu-
of adjacent cells
nication between cells in many types of tissues,
Figure 6.31 0.1 m including heart muscle and animal embryos.
 5 m

Figure 6.32