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1
Governing equations
2
General transport equations
There are seven equations for seven variables: pressure, three velocity
components, enthalpy, temperature, and density.
There are significant commonalities between the various equations.
Using a general variable , the conservative form of all fluid flow
equations can usefully be written in the following form:
div V div grad S
t
Or, in words:
3
Integral form
The key step of the finite volume method is to integrate the differential equation
shown in the previous slide, and then to apply Gauss divergence theorem,
which for a vector a states:
div a dV n a dA
CV A
This then leads to the following general conservation equation in integral form:
dV n ( V ) dA n ( grad ) dA S dV
t
CV A A CV
Net rate of Net rate of
Rate of Net rate of
decrease of due increase of due
increase + to = equations + finitecreation
This is the actual form ofconvection
the conservation solved by
to diffusion volume
of of
across boundaries across boundaries
based CFD programs to calculate the flow pattern and associated scalar fields.
4
Relevant entries for
5
Summary of equations in conservation form
Mass : div( V ) 0
t
( u ) p
x momentum : div ( uV ) div ( grad u ) S Mx
t x
( v) p
y momentum : div( vV ) div( grad v) S My
t y
( w) p
z momentum : div ( wV ) div( grad w) S Mz
t z
( i )
Internal energy : div( iV ) p div V div (k grad T ) S i
t
Equations of state : p p ( , T ) and i i ( , T )
e.g . for perfect gas : p RT and i CvT
6
Lagrangian vs. Eulerian description
A fluid flow field can be thought Another view of fluid motion is
of as being comprised of a large the Eulerian description. In the
number of finite sized fluid Eulerian description of fluid
particles which have mass, motion, we consider how flow
momentum, internal energy, and properties change at a fluid
other properties. Mathematical element that is fixed in space
laws can then be written for each and time (x,y,z,t), rather than
fluid particle. This is the following individual fluid
Lagrangian description of fluid particles.
motion.
( w) 1
w . z x y
z 2
( v) 1
v . y x z
y 2
( u) 1
( u ) 1 u . x y z
u . x yz x 2
x 2
( v) 1
v . y xz
z y 2
y
x ( w) 1
w . z xy 9
z 2
Continuity equation
Summing all terms in the previous slide and dividing by the
volume xyz results in:
( u) ( v) ( w) 0
t x y z
10
Rate of change for a fluid particle
Terminology: fluid element is a volume stationary in space, and a
fluid particle is a volume of fluid moving with the flow.
A moving fluid particle experiences two rates of changes:
Change due to changes in the fluid as a function of time.
Change due to the fact that it moves to a different location in the fluid
with different conditions.
The sum of these two rates of changes for a property per unit
mass is called the total or substantive derivative D /Dt:
D dx dy dz
Dt t x dt y dt z dt
div ( u) 0 ( )
div ( u) 0
t t
Continuity equation Arbitrary property
12
Fluid particle and fluid element
We can derive the relationship between the equations for a fluid
particle (Lagrangian) and a fluid element (Eulerian) as follows:
( ) D
div( u) u.grad div( u)
t t t Dt
( ) D
div ( u)
t Dt
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To remember so far
We need to derive conservation equations that we can solve to
calculate fluid velocities and other properties.
These equations can be derived either for a fluid particle that is
moving with the flow (Lagrangian) or for a fluid element that is
stationary in space (Eulerian).
For CFD purposes we need them in Eulerian form, but (according
to the book) they are somewhat easier to derive in Lagrangian
form.
Luckily, when we derive equations for a property in one form,
we can convert them to the other form using the relationship
shown on the bottom in the previous slide.
14
Momentum equation in three dimensions
We will first derive conservation equations for momentum and
energy for fluid particles. Next we will use the above relationships
to transform those to an Eulerian frame (for fluid elements).
We start with deriving the momentum equations.
Newtons second law: rate of change of momentum equals sum of
forces.
Rate of increase of x-, y-, and z-momentum:
Du Dv Dw
Dt Dt Dt
Forces on fluid particles are:
Surface forces such as pressure and viscous forces.
Body forces, which act on a volume, such as gravity, centrifugal,
Coriolis, and electromagnetic forces.
15
Viscous stresses
Stresses are forces per area. Unit
is N/m2 or Pa.
Viscous stresses denoted by
Suffix notation ij is used to
indicate direction.
Nine stress components.
xx, yy, zz are normal stresses.
E.g. zz is the stress in the z-
direction on a z-plane.
Other stresses are shear
stresses. E.g. zy is the stress in
the y-direction on a z-plane.
Forces aligned with the direction
of a coordinate axis are positive.
Opposite direction is negative.
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Forces in the x-direction
zx 1
( zx . z )yz yx 1
yx 1 z 2 ( yx . y )xz
( yx . y )xz y 2
y 2
p 1 p 1
( p . x)yz ( p . x )yz
x 2 x 2
xx 1 xx 1
( xx . x )yz ( xx . x)yz
x 2 x 2
z
zx 1
y ( zx . z )xy
x z 2
Net force in the x-direction is the sum of all the force components in that direction.
17
Momentum equation
Set the rate of change of x-momentum for a fluid particle Du/Dt
equal to:
the sum of the forces due to surface stresses shown in the previous
slide, plus
the body forces. These are usually lumped together into a source
term SM:
Du ( p xx ) yx zx
S Mx
Dt x y z
19
Work done by surface stresses in x-direction
(u zx ) 1
(u zx . z )yz
(u yx ) 1 z 2 (u yx ) 1
(u yx . y )xz (u yx . y )xz
y 2 y 2
(up ) 1
(up . x)yz (up ) 1
x 2 (up . x)yz
x 2
(u xx ) 1
(u xx . x )yz (u xx ) 1
x 2 (u xx . x)yz
x 2
z
y
(u zx ) 1
x (u zx . z )xy
z 2
Work done is force times velocity.
20
Work done by surface stresses
The total rate of work done by surface stresses is calculated as
follows:
For work done by x-components of stresses add all terms in the
previous slide.
Do the same for the y- and z-components.
Add all and divide by xyz to get the work done per unit volume
by the surface stresses:
(u xx ) (u yx ) (u zx ) (v xy )
div( pu)
x y z x
(v yy ) (v zy ) ( w xz ) ( w yz ) (u zz )
y z x y z
21
Energy flux due to heat conduction
q z 1
q y 1 (q z . z )xy
(q y . y )xz z 2
y 2
q x 1 q x 1
(q x . x)yz (q x . x)yz
x 2 x 2
z
y
x
q z 1 q y 1
(q z . z )xy (q y . y )xz
z 2 y 2
The heat flux vector q has three components, qx, qy, and qz. 22
Energy flux due to heat conduction
Summing all terms and dividing by xyz gives the net rate of heat
transfer to the fluid particle per unit volume:
q x q y q z
div q
x y z
Fouriers law of heat conduction relates the heat flux to the local
temperature gradient:
T T T
qx k qy k qz k
x y z
DE (u xx ) (u yx ) (u zx ) (v xy )
div ( pu)
Dt x y z x
(v yy ) (v zy ) ( w xz ) ( w yz ) (u zz )
y z x y z
div (k grad T ) S E
Note that we also added a source term SE that includes sources
(potential energy, sources due to heat production from chemical
reactions, etc.).
24
Kinetic energy equation
Separately, we can derive a conservation equation for the kinetic
energy of the fluid.
In order to do this, we multiply the u-momentum equation by u,
the v-momentum equation by v, and the w-momentum equation
by w. We then add the results together.
This results in the following equation for the kinetic energy:
D[ 12 (u 2 v 2 w 2 )] xx yx zx
u.grad p u
Dt x y z
xy yy zy xz yz zz
v w u. S M
x y z x y z
25
Internal energy equation
Subtract the kinetic energy equation from the energy equation.
Define a new source term for the internal energy as
Si = SE - u.SM. This results in:
Di u u u v
p div u xx yx zx xy
Dt x y z x
v v w w u
yy zy xz yz zz
y z x y z
div (k grad T ) S i
26
Enthalpy equation
An often used alternative form of the energy equation is the total
enthalpy equation.
Specific enthalpy h = i + p/
Total enthalpy h0 = h + (u2+v2+w2) = E + p/
( h0 )
div( h0u) div(k grad T )
t
(u xx ) (u yx ) (u zx ) (v xy )
x y z x
(v yy ) (v zy ) ( w xz ) ( w yz ) (u zz )
y z x y z
Sh
27
Equations of state
Fluid motion is described by five partial differential equations for
mass, momentum, and energy.
Amongst the unknowns are four thermodynamic variables: , p, i,
and T.
We will assume thermodynamic equilibrium, i.e. that the time it
takes for a fluid particle to adjust to new conditions is short
relative to the timescale of the flow.
We add two equations of state using the two state variables and
T: p=p(,T) and i=i(,T).
For a perfect gas, these become: p= RT and i=CvT.
At low speeds (e.g. Ma < 0.2), the fluids can be considered
incompressible. There is no linkage between the energy equation,
and the mass and momentum equation. We then only need to
solve for energy if the problem involves heat transfer.
28
Viscous stresses
A model for the viscous stresses ij is required.
We will express the viscous stresses as functions of the local
deformation rate (strain rate) tensor.
There are two types of deformation:
Linear deformation rates due to velocity gradients.
Elongating stress components (stretching).
Shearing stress components.
Volumetric deformation rates due to expansion or compression.
All gases and most fluids are isotropic: viscosity is a scalar.
Some fluids have anisotropic viscous stress properties, such as
certain polymers and dough. We will not discuss those here.
29
Viscous stress tensor
Using an isotropic (first) dynamic viscosity for the linear
deformations and a second viscosity =-2/3 for the volumetric
deformations results in:
xx xy xz
yx yy yz
zx zy zz
u 2 u v u w
2 div u
x 3 y x z x
u v v 2 v w
2 div u
y x y 3 z y
u w v w w 2
2 div u
z x z y z 3
( u ) p
x momentum : div( uu) div ( grad u ) S Mx
t x
( v) p
y momentum : div ( vu) div ( grad v) S My
t y
( w) p
z momentum : div ( wu) div( grad w) S Mz
t z
31
Viscous dissipation
Similarly, substituting the stresses in the internal energy equation
and rearranging results in:
( i )
Internal energy : div ( iu) p div u div (k grad T ) S i
t
2
x y z y x
u w
2
v w
2
2
( div u ) 2
z x z y 3
32