CBT 4193 Web Technology 22

CBT 4193
WEB TECHNOLOGY
Introduction to Computer
Networks
Modem: What is a Modem? Types of Modems
Modems
Modem is abbreviation for Modulator Demodulator.Modems are used
for data transfer from onecomputernetwork to another computer network
throughtelephonelines.Thecomputernetworkworksindigitalmode,while
analogtechnologyisusedforcarryingmassagesacrossphonelines.
Modulatorconvertsinformationfromdigital mode to analog modeat the

transmittingendanddemodulatorconvertsthesamefromanalog to digital at
receiving end. The process of converting analog signals of one computer
networkinto digital signals of another computer network so they can be
processedbyareceivingcomputerisreferred to as digitizing.
Whenananalogfacilityisusedfordatacommunicationbetweentwodigital
devices called Data Terminal Equipment (DTE), modems are used at each
end.DTEcanbeaterminaloracomputer.
Modems
ThemodematthetransmittingendconvertsthedigitalsignalgeneratedbyDTE
intoananalogsignalbymodulatingacarrier.Thismodematthereceivingend
demodulates the carrier and hand over the demodulated digital signal to the
DTE.
Modems
Thetransmissionmediumbetweenthetwomodemscanbededicatedcircuitora
switched telephone circuit. If a switched telephone circuit is used, then the
modems are connected to the local telephone exchanges. Whenever data
transmission is required connection between the modems is established through
telephoneexchanges.
Ready to Send
TobeginwiththeDataTerminalEquipmentorDTE(betterknownasa
computer) sends a Ready To Send or RTS signal to the Data
CommunicationEquipmentorDCE(betterknownasamodem).This
issometimesknownasawakeupcallandresultsinthemodemsending
a Data Carrier Detect or DCD signal to the receiving modem. There
then follows a series of signals passed between the two until the
communicationchannelhasbeenestablished.Thisprocessisknownas
handshakingandhelpstoexplainwhy,evennow,somecompanieslike
CompuServeusethesymboloftwohandsgraspingeachothertomean
beingon-line.Ofcourse,afterthatallittakesisforthesecondmodem
tosenda Data SetReady orDSRsignalto itscomputerandwait for
the Data Terminal Ready or DTR reply. When that happens the first
modem sends a Clear To Send or CTS signal to the computer that
startedthewholeprocessoffanddatacanthenbetransmitted.Itisas
simpleasthat.
Ready to Send
Alternatively,foranyoneconfusedbywhattheentireInternetindustrydubs
TLA's which means Three LetterAcronyms, the following diagram should
help.
Ready to Send
Itonlylooksconfusing.Takeasecondlookandeverythingwillsoonbecomeobvious.
By way of completeness, these signals are all sent through different pins in the plug
whichiswhythehandbooksforallmodemsandprinterscarryapindiagramsomewhere
in the section on troubleshooting. They are also standardized after the industry leaders
met to agree standards for a whole range of peripheral equipment. The Recommended
Standard for cable was number 232 which explains that one technical term probably
everybodyhasheardof:RS232.
Of course, that still leaves the question of exactly how data is transferred from one
computertoanother;somethingthatismoreofaproblemthanmightfirstappearmainly
because the phone lines are analogue whilecomputersare digital. In simple terms this
meansatelephonesignalisconstantlychanging.Tounderstandthatjustthinkofasine
waveasproducedonanoscilloscope.Thesignalmightbeconstant,butitisconstantly
changing from positive to negative and back again in a series of smooth curves.
Computers,ontheotherhand,canonlyunderstandinformationwhenitispresentedasa
stringofbinarydigitssotheideaistomapdigitaloutputontoananaloguesignal.
Ready to Send
Withoutgoingintotechnicaldetailsthisisdonebysuperimposingdifferentfrequencies
onto the analogue signal (which then becomes known as the carrier wave). Different
frequencies can then represent different groups of binary digits in a process which is
knownasmodulationwhenitisbeingtransmittedanddemodulationwhenitisdecoded
at the receiving end. Naturally two way communication is achieved by having a single
devicebeingcapableofbothmodulationanddemodulation,fromwhichtheunittakesits
name:themodem.
Fromthisitbecomesobviousthatthemorefrequenciesthatcanbesuperimposedonthe
carrierwavethefasterdatacanbetransmitted.Alternatively,totakeadifferentpointof
view,themoredatathereistobetransmittedsothemorefrequenciesareneeded.
Unfortunatelyitisonlypossibletosendalimitednumberoffrequenciesatthesametime,
knownasthebandwidth,whichmeanscommunicationtakesthatmuchlongerasthesize
ofthesignalssteadilyincreases.Nowthatpictures,soundandevenvideosequencesare
transmittedovertheInternetonaregularbasis,andastheseallcallformassivedatafiles,
theamountofavailablebandwidthislikelytobeaproblemforsometime.
Ready to Send
Finally,asthewholeprocesscomesdowntosendingbinary
digits or bits over a phone line the speed of the system is
expressed as Bits Per Second or BPS which is a figure
quotedbyallthemodemmanufacturers.
Unfortunatelywhenitcomestodatacommunicationsthereis
alotmoreinvolvedthanjusthowfastbitscanbesentdown
a phone line. There is also the problem of what those bits
mean and how they can be assembled into something
intelligibleatthefarend.Hereawholerangeofissuesneed
tobeaddressedandsoitmightbeagoodideatobrieflylook
atthefirstofthesewhicharethetransmissionprotocols.
Types of Modems
Modems can be of several types and
they can be categorized in a number of
ways.
Categorization is usually based on the
following basic modem features:
1. Directional capacity: half duplex modem
and full duplex modem.
2. Connection to the line: 2-wire modem and
4-wire modem.
3. Transmission mode: asynchronous modem
and synchronous modem.
Types of Modems
Modems can be of several types and
they can be categorized in a number of
ways.
Categorization is usually based on the
following basic modem features:
1. Directional capacity: half duplex modem
and full duplex modem.
2. Connection to the line: 2-wire modem and
4-wire modem.
3. Transmission mode: asynchronous modem
and synchronous modem.
What is Cable Modem
ToaccessInternetThroughaCableTV.ComputerNetworkrequiresacable
Modem.IthastwointerfacesonitoneforcomputerandotherforCable
Network The Computer side interface is usually is a USB Interface or
10MbpsEthernetAndTheCableNetworkiscommoncablewireinterface.
ThisModemmakesaconnectionwhenitisturnedon.Cablemodemsare
always retaining the connection(unless they are switched off) because the
cableoperatordoesnotchargeforthedurationofconnection.
When a cable Modem is switched on It scans the downstream channel

lookingforaspecialpacketperiodically(specialpacketcontainsthemodem
configuration and sender of this is the headend),After getting the packet,
thenewmodemsendsapacketononeoftheupstreamchannel.
What is Cable Modem
Aftergettingapacketfromamodem,headendsendsapackettothenew
modem assigning the modem with downstream and upstream channels.
Themodemthendeterminesitsdistancefromtheheadendbysendingit
a special packet and seeing how long it takes to get the response. This
process is called ranging. It is important for the modem to know its
distance to accommodate the way the upstream channels and to get the
timingright.
They are divided in time in minislots Each upstream packet must fit in
oneormoreconsecutiveminislots.Theheadendannouncesthestartofa
newroundofminislotsperiodically,butthestartinggunisnotheardat
allmodemssimultaneouslyduetothepropagationtimedownthecable.
Byknowinghowfaritisfromtheheadend,eachmodemcancompute
howlongagothefirstminislotreallystarted.Minislotlengthisnetwork
dependent.Atypicalpayloadis8bytes
What is Cable Modem
Duringinitializationtheheadendalsoassignseachmodemto
a minislottouseforrequestingupstreambandwidth.Asrule,
multiple modems will be assigned the same minislot, which
leadstocontention.Whenacomputerwantstosendapacket,
it transfers the packet to the modem, which then requests the
necessarynumberofminislotsforit.
If the request is accepted, the headend puts an

acknowledgement on the downstream channel telling the
modemwhichminislotshavebeenreservedforitspacket.The
packet is then sent ., starting in the minislot allocated to it
.Additional packets can be requested using a field in the
header.
What is Fax Modem
Afax modem is simply a modem designed for sending and (usually)
receiving faxes via yourcomputer. Using a fax modem, you can send a
document to someone else's fax machine without having to print out the
documentandthenstandthereandmakesurethepagesdon'tjaminthefax
machine. In fact, if the other person has a fax modem attached
totheircomputer, they can receive the document directly into their
computer and read it on their screen. Of course, they can print it to their
ownprinterand then haveacopyon realpaperinstead ofthat disgusting
faxpaper.
Apple'sPowerBook(thelaptopMacintosh) and manynotebookpcs have

fax modems built into them. You can take the PowerBook to your hotel,
unplug the hotel room phone, plug that cord right into your PowerBook,
andfaxaway.Incredible.Infact,ifyouneedaprintoutandyoudon'thave
aportableprinter,youcanfaxthedocumenttoyourselfinthehotellobby.
What is Fax Modem
You can buy fax modems onadd-in boardsthat plug into
your computer, or in little boxes not much bigger than a
deck of cards. Before you lay your money down, be sure
you ask whether the fax modem can receive (some don't-
they cost less, but you'll be stuck when someone wants to
send you a fax). And ask how fast the fax modem is-the
standardspeedis9600bps,butsomeonlyrunat4800bps.
And find out for sure what software will work with it,
because the modem won't do you any good if your
softwarecan'tmakeitgo.
WHAT IS NULL MODEM
Anull modem cable is a cable that plugs into the
communicationport(theserialport,theonewhereyouwouldpluginthecablefor
amodem)of twocomputersthat are pretty close to each other. Then the two
computers can shareinformationback and forth, even faster than if they were
connected by a modem and phone lines. If you want to be able to connect your
portablecomputerdirectly to your bigger computer without modems, you need to
hookthemtogetherwithanullmodemcable.Oryoucanuseastandardserialcable
andgetanullmodemadaptor,whichisjustaplugwithafemalejackononeside
andamalejackontheother.
Moretechnicalinfo:Thereasonyouneedanullmodemcable,notastandardserial
cable,isthattheportwhereyoupluginonthemodemiswiredasamirrorimageof
theportonacomputer-thecomputermightsendsignalsonwire2andreceivethem
onwire3,whileviceisversaatthemodemend.Sincetheportsonbothcomputers
arewiredthesameway,thesignalsgetcrossedifyouusearegularserialcable.Ina
nullmodemcable,thewiregoingtopin2ofonecomputeriscrossedsoitgoesto
pin3oftheother,andsoon(only3pairsofwiresneedtobereversed).
What is Router
What is Router
Routersaredevices(computers)containingsoftwarethathelpindeterminingthebest
path out of the available paths, for a particular transmission. They consist of a
combinationofhardwareandsoftware.Thehardwareincludesthephysicalinterfaces
to the various networks in the internet work. The two main pieces of software in a
routeraretheoperatingsystemandtheroutingprotocol.
Routersuselogicalandphysicaladdressingtoconnecttwoormorelogicallyseparate
networks. They accomplish this connection by organizing the large network into
logical network segments or sub-networks. Each of these sub networks is given a
logicaladdress.Thisallowsthenetworkstobeseparatebutstillaccesseachotherand
exchange datawhen necessary. Data is groupedinto packets, or blocks ofdata.Each
packet,inadditiontohavingaphysicaldeviceaddress,hasalogicalnetworkaddress.
Routers are frequently used to interconnect identical networks as well as to

interconnectnetworkswithdifferenttypesofhardware.ComparedtoonegiantLAN,a
seriesofsmallerLANsconnectedthroughroutershassomehighlydesirablebenefits.
What is Router
The foremost of these issecurity.LANs operate in a
broadcastmode.Informationretrievedortransmittedgoeson
tothenetworkandtraversestheentirecablesystem.Onlythe
stationspecificallyaddressedactuallyreadsthedata,butthe
dataisphysicallypresentedtoeachstation.
Anotherbenefitofroutersis'reliability.Ifonenetworkgoes
downbecausetheserverhasstoppedfunctioningorbecause
ofafaultinthecable,othernetworksanddepartmentsserved
by routers are not affected. The internet ting routers isolate
theaffectednetwork,hencetheunaffectednetworksalthough
connected,experiencenoworkstoppageordataloss.
What is Router
Another benefit of using routers isperformance enhancementwithin the
individualnetwork.Supposethatanetworkhas12workstations,eachof
which generates approximately the same amount of traffic. In a single-
networkenvironment,allthetrafficforthose12workstationsgoesonthe
samecable.Butifthenetworkissplitinto2networksof6workstations
each,thetrafficloadiscuttohalf.Eachnetworkhasitsownserverand
hard disk and is largely self-contained; so fewer PCs make demands on
thenetworkcablingsystem.
Afinalbenefitofroutersisgreaternetworkingrange.Insomenetworks,
forinstance,cablelengthcannotexceed1,000meters.Aroutereffectively
nullifies this limitation by performing the function of a repeater and
reconstituting the signal. Physical range can be whatever is required by
the particular installation, provided that a router is installed before the
maximumcablerangeisexceeded.
TYPES OF ROUTERS
ManykindsofRoutersarepresentinthecurrentmarketthataredepending
ontheneedoftheanyenterprises.Ciscoisthemajormanufacturerofrouter
mostlyCiscorouterareusedtosetupnetworkoflargecorporationandeven
of the ISPs. Broadly Routers are divided into three categories that
dependinguponthecorporateneeds.
Internet connectivity routers

TheseroutersareusedinBorderGatewayProtocolfor
exchangeinformation.Thesetypeofroutersarefurtherdivided
intofourmorecategories.
Edge router
AEdgerouteroredgedeviceisroutesdatapacketsbetweenLANsandan
AsynchronousTransferMode(ATM)network.
TYPES OF ROUTERS
Subscriber edge router (SER)
Subscriberedgerouter(SER)AlsoknownasCustomerEdgerouter.CustomerEdge
routeruseEBGPprotocol,itusedin(enterprise)organization.
Inter provider border router

InterproviderborderrouterareusedforInterconnectingISPs.Interproviderborder
routeruseBGPprotocoltospeake.
Core router
WhenarouterbecometheintegralpartoftheLAN(LocalAreaNetwork)iscalled
core router. Core router uses internal BGP protocol.Core routers have specialized
functionsinVPN,thatisbasedonacombinationofBGPandMulti-ProtocolLabel
Switchingprotocols.
One Another Type of Router is SOHO routers. It is used for connection other
networksinsmallgeographicalareaitisknownasSOHOconnectivity.
HOW ROUTERS WORKS
Routersareinterconnectivitydevicesthatisusedtotransferthedatumpackets
along networks by visualizing the networks path. Routers visualizing the
networks path to many networks such as Electronic networks, Transport
networksandphonenetworks.Twowaysareexistforroutersoperationusing
eithercontrolplaneorforwardingplane.Incontrolplanetheroutersendsthe
precisedatapacketstotheirspecificlocation.Ontheotherhandinforwarding
planerouterdoesnotrememberthesendingorreceivinginformationaboutthe
packets.
Advantages of Routers
Routers route the data in an organized way. Routers generate a reliable
connectionbetweenhosts.Routersisusedforalternativelyincasethemainis
failtotransferdata.
TYPES OF SERVERS
TYPES OF SERVERS
File servers. -With a file server, theComputerNetwork client passes
requests forcomputernetwork files or file records over a computer
networktothefileserver.Thisformofcomputernetworkdataservice
requireslargebandwidthandcanslowacomputernetworkwithmany
users down considerably. Traditional LAN (Local area Network)
computing allows users to share resources, such as data files and
peripheral devices, by moving them from standalone PCUs onto a
NetworkedFileServer(NFS).
Database servers-In database servers, clients passes SQL (Structured

QueryLanguage)requestsasmessagestotheserverandtheresultsof
the query are returned over the network. The code that processes the
SQL request and the data resides on the server allowing it to use its
own processing power to find the requested data, rather than pass all
therecordsbacktoaclientandletitfinditsowndataaswasthecase
forthefileserver.
TYPES OF SERVERS
Transaction servers-Clientsinvokeremoteproceduresthatresideon
servers which also contains an SQL database engine. There are
procedural statements on the server to execute a group of SQL
statements(transactions)whicheitherallsucceedorfailasaunit.The
applicationsbasedontransactionserversarecalledOn-lineTransaction
Processing (OLTP) and tend to be mission-critical applications which
require 1-3 second response time, 100% of the time and require tight
controlsoverthesecurityandintegrityofthedatabase.
Thecommunicationoverheadinthisapproachiskepttoaminimumas
theexchangetypicallyconsistsofasinglerequest/reply(asopposedto
multiple SQL statements in database servers). Application servers are
not necessarily database cantered but are used to server user needs,
such as. download capabilities from Dow Jones or regulating a
electronic mail process. Basing resources on a server allows users to
share data, while security and management services, which are also
basedintheserver,ensuredataintegrityandsecurity.
TYPES OF SERVERS
Application Server: A network SERVER that enables users to run
application programs such as word processors or spreadsheets on the
server itself, rather than downloading the application's code and
runningitontheirlocalworkstation.Applicationserversareoftenused
inconjunctionwithdisklessworkstationsorsocalledTHINCLIENTS.
Client Server Networks
AComputernetworking model where one or more
powerfulcomputers(servers) provide the differentcomputernetwork
servicesandallotheruser'ofcomputernetwork(clients)accessthose
services to perform user's tasks is known as client/server computer
networkingmodel.
Insuchnetworks,thereexistsacentralcontrollercalledserver.Aserver
is a specialized computer that controls the network resources and
providesservicestoothercomputersinthenetwork.
Allothercomputersinthenetworkarecalledclients.Aclientcomputer
receivestherequestedservicesfromaserver.
A server performs all the major operations like security and network
management.
Alltheclientscommunicatewitheachotherviacentralizedserver
Ifclient1wantstosenddatatoclient2,itfirstsendsrequesttoserver
to seek permission for it. The server then sends a signal to client 1
allowingittoinitiatethecommunication.
A server is also responsible for managing all the network resources

suchasfiles,directories,applications&shareddeviceslikeprinteretc.
If any of the clients wants to access these services, it first seeks

permissionfromtheserverbysendingarequest.
MostLocalAreaNetworksarebasedonclientserverrelationship.
Client-server networking became popular in the late 1980s and early
1990s as many applications were migrated from centralized
minicomputers and mainframes to computer networks of persona
computers.
The design of applications for a distributed computing environment
requiredthattheyeffetelybedividedintotwoparts:client(frontend)
and server (back end). The network model on which they were
implemented mirrored this client-server model with a user'sPC(the
client)typicallyactingastherequestingmachineandamorepowerful
servermachinetowhichitwasconnectedviaeitheraLANoraWAN
acting as the supplying machine. It requires special
networkingoperating system. It provides user level security and it is
moreexpensive.
ADVANTAGES OF CLIENT SERVER NETWORKS
Centralizedbackupispossible.
Useofdedicatedserverimprovestheperformanceofwholesystem.
Security is better in these networks as all the shared resources are
centrallyadministered.
Useofdedicatedserversalsoincreasesthespeedofsharingresources.
DISADVANTAGES OF CLIENT SERVER
NETWORKS
It requires specialized servers with largememoryand secondary

storage.Thisleadstoincreaseinthecost.
Thecostofnetworkoperatingsystemthatmanagesthevariousclients
isalsohigh.
Itrequiresdedicatednetworkadministrator.
Half duplex and full duplex Modems
Half duplex
Ahalf duplex modem permits transmission in one direction at a
time.
If a carrier is detected on the line by the modem, I gives an
indication of the incoming carrier to the DTE through a control
signalofitsdigitalinterface.
Aslongastheycamel'ISbeingreceived;themodemdoesnotgive
permissiontotheDTEtotransmitdata.
Full duplex
Afull duplex modem allows simultaneous transmission in
bothdirections.
Therefore,therearetwocarriersontheline,oneoutgoingand
theotherincoming.Wire and 4-wire Modems
Thelineinterfaceofthemodemcanhavea2-wireora4-wire
connectiontotransmissionmedium.4-wireModem
Ina 4-wire connection, one pair of wires is used for the

outgoing carrier and the other pair is used for incoming
carrier.
Full duplex
Full duplex and half duplex modes of data transmission are
possibleona4-wireconnection.
As the physical transmission path for each direction is

separate,thesamecarrierfrequencycanbeusedforboththe
directions.
2-wire Modem
2-wire modems use the same pair of wires for outgoing and incoming
carriers.
Aleased2-wireconrlectionisusuallycheaperthana4-wireconnectionas
onlyonepairofwiresisextendedtothesubscriber'spremises.
The data connection established through telephone exchange is also a 2-
wireconnection.
In 2-wire modems, half duplex mode of transmission that uses the same
frequency for the incoming and outgoing carriers can be easily
implemented.
Forfullduplexmodeofoperation,itisnecessarytohavetwotransmission
channels,onefortransmitdirectionandtheotherforreceivedirection.
This is achieved by frequency division multiplexing of two different
carrierfrequencies.Thesecarriersareplacedwithinthebandwidthofthe
speechchannel.
2-wire Modem
Asynchronous & Synchronous
Modems
Asynchronous Modem
Asynchronous modems can handle data bytes with start
andstopbits.
There is no separate timing signal or clock between the
modemandtheDTE.
Theinternaltimingpulsesaresynchronizedrepeatedlyto
theleadingedgeofthestartpulse.
Synchronous Modem
Synchronous modems can handle a continuous stream of
databitsbutrequiresaclocksignal.
Thedatabitsarealwayssynchronizedtotheclocksignal.
Thereareseparateclocksforthedatabitsbeingtransmitted
andreceived.
Forsynchronoustransmissionofdatabits,theDTEcanuse
itsinternalclockandsupplythesametothemodem.
Modulation techniques used for Modem:
Thebasicmodulationtechniquesusedbyamodemtoconvertdigital
datatoanalogsignalsare:
Amplitudeshiftkeying(ASK).
Frequencyshiftkeying(FSK).
Phaseshiftkeying(PSK).
DifferentialPSK(DPSK).

These techniques are known as the binary continuous wave (CW)
modulation.
Modemsarealwaysusedinpairs.Anysystemwhethersimplex,halfduplex
or full duplex requires a modem at the transmitting as well as the receiving
end.
Thusamodemactsastheelectronicbridgebetweentwoworlds-theworldof
purelydigitalsignalsandtheestablishedanalogworld.
What is a Computer Network? Uses of Computer
Networks.
What is a Computer Network
During 20th century the most important technology has
been theinformationgathering, its processing and
distribution.Thecomputersandcommunicationshavebeen
mergedtogetherandtheirmergerhashadaprofoundeffect
onthemannerinwhichcomputersystemsareorganized.
Theoldmodelinwhichasinglecomputerusedtoserveall
the computational needs of an organization has been
replacedbyanewoneinwhichalargenumberofseparate
butinterconnectedcomputersdothejob.Suchsystemsare
calledascomputer networks.
What is a Computer Network
Twocomputersaresaidtobeinterconnectediftheyinterchange
information.Theconnectionbetweentheseparatecomputerscan
be done via a copper wire, fiber optics, microwaves or
communication satellite.
Aprinter,
computer, or any machine that is capable of
communicatingonthenetworkisreferredtoasadeviceornode.
Wecanalsosaythatcomputernetworkisaninterconnectionof
variouscomputerstosharesoftware,hardwareanddatathrough
a communication medium between them. The computers
connected in a network share files, folders, applications and
resourceslikescanner,web-cams,printersetc.
The best example of computer network is the
Internet.
A computer network isan interconnection of various computers to share

software,hardware, resources and data through a communication medium
betweenthem.
AComputerNetworking is a set of autonomous computers that permits

distributed processing of the information and data and increased
Communicationofresources.
Any Computer Networking communication need a sender, a receiver and a

communication medium to transfer signal or Data from sender to the
receiver. We need sender, receiver, communication channel, protocols
andoperatingsystemtoestablishacomputernetworking.
A networks model describes the organization of various computers in a

networkforusingresources.
Computer Network Model
Acomputer networkscommunication can be based on centralized,

distributedorcollaborativecomputing.Centralizedcomputinginvolves
manyworkstationsorterminals,connectedtoonecentralmainframeor
other powerful computer. Distributed computing interconnects one or
morepersonalcomputersandallowsvariousserviceslikeDatasharing,
hardware sharingresourcessharing or network sharing. The
collaborative computing is the combination of centralized and
distributedcomputing.
Centralized computing
It is also known as client-server computing.

In this type of system, multiple computers are joined to
one powerful mainframe computer.
The server or mainframe computer has huge storage and
processing capabilities.
The computers that are connected to the mainframe or
server are called Clients or Nodes.
These nodes arenotconnected to each other; they are
only connected to server.
Distributed computing
If one computer can forcibly start, stop or control another

the computers are not autonomous. A system with one
control unit and many slaves, or a large computer with
remote printers and terminals is not called a computer
network, it is called aDistributed System.
Distributed computing means that the task is divided
among multiple computers.
Distributed computing interconnects one ore more
personal computers or Workstations.
In distributed computing, the nodes are capable of
processing their own data and rely on network for
services other than data processing.
It allows various services like network sharing, hardware
sharing and file sharing.
Collaborative computing / Hybrid computing
Itisthecombinationofcentralizedanddistributedcomputing
Incollaborativecomputing,thenodesareabletoservethebasicneeds
of their users but they are dependent on some other computers for
processingsomespecificrequest.
Computer Network Classification
The local area network communication can be constructed by using

serverbasedmodelorpeertopeermodel.Inpeertopeernetworks,the
individual clients share data and resources but no one computer is
treatedasserver.
NetworkscanbeclassifiedintolocalareaNetworks,metropolitanarea
Networks and wide area networks. Local area network is the small
network that cover a small area of Network. Metropolitan area
networks are created by combining various local area networks.Wide
areanetworksarethebiggestnetworksthatprovideconnectivityacross
theglobe.
Networks provide the benefits of exchanging information or Data,
sharing resources, reducing system costs, increased reliability and
flexibleworkingenvironment.
Computer Network topology
The physical arrangement of computers in a communication network is

called as topology. In star topology, every system on the network is
connectedtoacentralcontrollercalledHubandallthedataistransmitted
through this. Star topology is very easy to install and configure. In bus
topology,asinglecableactsasabackboneofthecommunicationnetwork
andallthenodesorcomputersareattachedtoitbyusingTconnectors.
Uses of Computer Networks

Thecomputernetworksareplayinganimportantroleinprovidingservices
tolargeorganizationsaswellastotheindividualcommonman.
Service Provided by the Network for Companies:
Service Provided by the Network for Companies:

Manyorganizationshavealargenumberofcomputersinoperation.
These computers may be withinthe same building, campus, cityor
differentcities.
Even though the computers are located in different locations, the
organizationswanttokeeptrackofinventories,monitorproductivity,
dotheorderingandbillingetc.
The computer networks are useful to the organizations in the
followingways:
Resourcesharing.
Forprovidinghighreliability.
Tosavemoney.
Itcanprovideapowerfulcommunicationmedium.
Resource sharing
Itallowsallprograms,equipmentsanddataavailabletoanyoneonthe
network irrespective of the physical location of the resource and the
user.
Show in Fig (a) and (b) which shows a printer being shared and
differentinformationbeingshared.
Resource sharing
High reliability due to alternative sources of data
It provides high reliability by having alternative sources of data. For e.g. all
files could be replicated on more than one machines, so if one of them is
unavailableduetohardwarefailureoranyotherreason,theothercopiescanbe
used.
Theaspectofhighreliabilityisveryimportantformilitary,banking,airtraffic
control, nuclear reactor safety and many other applications where continuous
operationsisamusteveniftherearehardwareorsoftwarefailures.
Money saving
Computernetworkingisanimportantfinancialaspectfororganizationsbecause
itsavesmoney.
Organizationscanuseseparatepersonalcomputeroneperuserinsteadofusing
mainframecomputerwhichareexpensive.
Theorganizationscanusetheworkgroupmodel(peertopeer)inwhichallthe
PCsarenetworkedtogetherandeachonecanhavetheaccesstotheotherfor
communicatingorsharingpurpose.
The organization, if it wants security for its operation it can go in for the
domain model in which there is a server and clients. All the clients can
communicateandaccessdatathroughtheserver.
Thewholearrangementiscalledasclient-servermodel.
Money saving
Client:Theindividualworkstationsinthenetworkarecalledasclients.
Server:
Thecentralcomputerwhichismorepowerfulthantheclientsandwhichallows
theclientstoaccessitssoftwareanddatabaseiscalledastheserver.
Servercomputerstypicallyaremorepowerfulthanclientcomputersorare
optimizedtofunctionasservers.
Communication in client-server configuration:
The client places a request on the server machine when he
wants an access to the centralized resources.
The server responds to this request and sends the signal
accordingly to the client.
The software run at the client computer is called as client
program. This software configures the computer to act as a
client.
Similarly the software run on the server computer IS called as
server program. It configures a computer to act as a server.
Communication medium:
Acomputernetworkprovidesapowerfulcommunication
mediumamongwidelyseparatedemployees.
Usingnetworkitiseasyfortwoormoreemployees,whoare
separatedbygeographicallocationstoworkonareport,
documentorRandDsimultaneouslyi.e.on-line.
Networksfor People:
Startingin1990s,thecomputernetworksbegantostart
deliveringservicestotheprivateindividualsathome.
Thecomputernetworksofferthefollowingservicestoan
individualperson:
Accesstoremoteinformation
Persontopersoncommunication
Interactiveentertainment.
Access to remote information:
Accesstoremoteinformationinvolvesinteractionbetween
a person and a remote database. Access to remote
informationcomesinmanyformslike:
Home shopping, paying telephone, electricity bills, e-
banking,onlinesharemarketetc.
Newspaperis.On-lineandispersonalized,digitallibrary
consistingofbooks,magazines,scientificjournalsetc.
World wide web which contains information. about the
arts, business, cooking, government, health, history,
hobbies,recreation,science,sportsetc.
Person to person communication:
Persontopersoncommunicationincludes:
Electronic-mail(e-mail)
Real time e-mail i.e. video conferencing allows remote users to
communicatewithnodelaybyseeingandhearingeachother.Video-
conferencing is being used for remote school, getting medical
opinionfromdistantspecialistsetc.
Worldwidenewsgroupsinwhichonepersonpostsamessageandall
other subscribers to the newsgroup can read it or give their
feedbacks.
Interactive entertainment:
Interactiveentertainmentincludes:
Multipersonreal-timesimulationgames.
Videoondemand.
ParticipationinliveTVprogrammeslikesquiz,contest,
discussionsetc.
Inshort,theabilitytomergeinformation,communication
andentertainmentwillsurelygiverisetoamassivenew
industrybasedoncomputernetworking.
What is a computer network?
Advantages of Network .
What is a computer network?
Acomputernetwork consists of two or morecomputersthat
arelinkedinordertoshareresourcessuchasprintersandCD-
ROMs, exchange files, or allow electronic communications.
Thecomputersonacomputernetworkmaybelinkedthrough
cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared
lightbeams.
Computernetworkcanbeclassifiedonthebasisoffollowing
features:
By Scale
By Connection Method
By Functional Relationship (Network Architectures)
By Network Topology:
By Scale
Computer networks may be classified according to the
scale:
ComputerNetworksfall into three classes regarding the

size, distance and the structure namely: LAN (LocalArea
Network), MAN (Metropolitan Area Network), WAN
(WideAreaNetwork).
LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)
ALocal Area Network is a privately
ownedcomputernetworkcovering asmall Networks geographical
area,like a home, office, or groups of buildings e.g. a school
Network.ALANisusedtoconnectthecomputersandothernetwork
devicessothatthedevicescancommunicatewitheachothertoshare
the resources. The resources to be shared can be a hardware device
likeprinter,softwarelikeanapplicationprogramordata.Thesizeof
LAN is usually small. The various devices in LAN are connected to
centraldevicescalledHuborSwitchusingacable.
Now-a-days LANs are being installed using wireless technologies.

Such a system makes use of access point or APs to transmit and
receivedata.Oneofthecomputersinanetworkcanbecomeaserver
servingalltheremainingcomputerscalledClients.
Forexample,alibrarywillhaveawiredorwirelessLANNetworkfor
users to interconnect local networking devices e.g., printers and
serverstoconnecttotheinternet.
LAN offers high speed communication of data rates of 4 to 16

megabits per second (Mbps).IEEEhas projects investigating the
standardization of 100 Gbit/s, and possibly 40 Gbit/s.
LANsNetworkmayhaveconnectionswithotherLANsNetworkvia
leasedlines,leasedservices.
Inthepast,allhostsinanetworkwereconnectedthroughacommon
cable, which meant that a packet sent from one host to another was
received by all hosts. The intended recipient kept the packet; the
othersdroppedthepacket.
Today, most LANs use a smart connecting switch, which is able to

recognizethedestinationaddressofthepacketandguidethepacket
toitsdestinationwithoutsendingittoallotherhosts.
TheswitchalleviatesthetrafficintheLANandallowsmorethanone
pair to communicate with each other at the same time if there is no
common source and destination among them. Note that the above
definition of a LAN does not define the minimum or maximum
numberofhostsinaLAN.
TYPES OF LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)
TherearebasicallytwotypesofLocalAreaNetworks
namely:ARCnetandEthernet.
ARCNET (Attached Resource Computer NETwork)
ARCNETisoneoftheoldest,simplest,andleastexpensivetypes
ofLocal-AreaNetworkprotocol,similarinpurposetoEthernetor
Token Ring.ARCNETwas the first widely available networking
systemfor microcomputers and became popular inthe 1980s for
office automation tasks. ARCnet was introduced by Datapoint
Corporationin1977.
AspecialadvantageofARCNETisthatitpermitsvarioustypesof
transmission media - twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, and fiber
opticcable-tobemixedonthesamenetwork.Thespecification
isANSI878.1.Itcanhaveupto255nodespernetwork.
Anew specification, calledARCnet Plus, will support data rates
of20Mbps.
TYPES OF LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)
Ethernetis a family of computer networking technologies for

local area networks commercially introduced in 1980.
Standardized in IEEE 802.3, Ethernet has largely replaced
competingwiredlocalareanetworktechnologies.Ethernetusesa
bus or star topology Network and supports data transfer rates of
10Mbps.
Ethernet Network uses the CSMA/CD access method to handle
simultaneousdemands.Itisoneofthemostwidelyimplemented
LAN standards. A newer version of Ethernet Network, called
100Base-T(or Fast Ethernet), supports data transfer rates of 100
Mbps.
Andthenewestversion,GigabitEthernetsupportsdataratesof1
gigabit (1,000 megabits) per second. Ethernet is a physical and
data link layer technology for local area networks (LANs).
EthernetNetworkwasinventedbyengineerRobertMetcalfe.
ETHERNET TOPOLOGY
TheIEEE802.3standardispopularlycalledasEthernet.Itis
abusbasedbroadcastnetworkwithdecentralizedcontrol.It
canoperateat10Mbpsor100Mbpsorabove.Computerson
anEthernetcantransmitwhenevertheywanttodoso.Iftwo
ormoremachinestransmitsimultaneously,thentheirpackets
collide. Then the transmittingcomputersjust wait for an
arbitrary time and retransmit their signal.There are various
technologies available in the LAN market but the most
popularoneofthemisEthernet.
ETHERNET TOPOLOGY
TheEthernet topologywas developed at the University of
Hawaii to connect computers on the various Islands. It was
radio based design. Ethernet is one of the most
popularComputerNetwork orLAN technologiesin use
today covering more than 85% of thecomputernetworks.
Ethernetsystemconsistsofthreebasicelements:
The physical medium use to carry Ethernet signals

betweencomputersonthenetwork
A set of rules (protocols) embedded in each Ethernet

interface that will decide how multiple computers on the
networkwillhaveaccesstothedataonthemedium.
ETHERNET TOPOLOGY
An Ethernet frame thatconsistsofastandardizedsetof
bitsusedtocarrydataoverthesystem.
TheoperationofEthernetcanbedescribedinsimpleterms
asfollows:
Each computer on the Ethernet Network, alsoknown as a

node,operates independently of all other nodes. All nodes
attached to an Ethernet are connected to ashared
mediumover which theEthernet signals travel serially,
onedatabitatatime.
ETHERNET TOPOLOGY
Tosenddataastationfirstlistenstothechannelandwhen
thechannelisidlethestationtransmitsitsinformationinthe
formofanEthernet frame,orpacket.TheEthernetrules
(protocol)aredefinedinsuchawaythateverynodegetsa
fairamountofframetransmissionopportunity.
As each Ethernet frame is sent out on theshared medium,

the Ethernet interfaces inside the node look at
thedestination address.The interfaces compare the
destinationaddressoftheframewiththeirownaddress.The
Ethernet interface with the same address as the destination
addressintheframewillreadtheentireframeandallother
networkinterfaceswillignoretheinformation.
MEDIUM ACCESS CONTROL OF ETHERNET
ThesetofruleswhichensuresthateverynodeinanEthernet
gets a fair amount of frame transmission opportunity, are
called the "Medium Access Control"mechanism. The
Medium Access Control mechanism is based on a system
calledCarrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection (CSMD/CD).
Ethernet Frame
The heart ofEthernet system is the Ethernet Frame,
which is used to deliver information between the
computers.Theframe consists of a set of bits organized
into several fields.Thesefields include address fields, a
data field and an error checking fieldthat checks the
integrity of the bits in the frame to make sure that the
framehasarrivedintact.
ADVANTAGES OF ETHERNET
Ethernet'smajoradvantagesare:
ItisaninexpensivewaytoachievehighspeedLAN
transmissions(10to100MB/s)
Itisaproventechnologythatsupportsvariouswriting
configurations.
ItworkswellwithalargenumberofLANandmicro-to-
mainframeapplications.
Itiseasytoinstall.
DISADVANTAGES OF ETHERNET CABLING
TheEthernetcablingahsthefollowingdisadvantages:
Ethernet isnot a high-level performerin high-load

environments. This protocol (CSMA/CD: Carrier Sense
Multiple Access/Collision Detection) can slow down
dramatically if hundreds of workstations are competing
forthesamecablingtrunk.
Its linear bus cabling system can sometimes make it

difficulttoisolateproblems.
Local Area Network
Local Area Network
METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN)
MANstandsforMetropolitanAreaNetworksisoneofanumberof
types of networks. A MAN is a relatively new class of network.
MAN is larger than a local area network and as its name implies,
coverstheareaofasinglecity.
MANs rarely extend beyond 100 KM and frequently comprise a

combinationofdifferenthardwareandtransmissionmedia.Itcanbe
single network such as a cable TV network, or it is a means of
connectinganumberofLANsintoalargernetworksothatresources
canbesharedLANtoLANaswellasdevicetodevice.
Metropolitan Area Network
A MAN can be created as a single network such as Cable TV
Network, covering the entire city or a group of several Local Area
Networks (LANs). It this way resource can be shared from LAN to
LANandfromcomputertocomputeralso.MANsareusuallyowned
by large organizations to interconnect its various branches across a
city.
MANisbasedonIEEE802.6standardknownasDQDB(Distributed
Queue Dual Bus). DQDB uses two unidirectional cables (buses) and
all the computers are connected to these two buses. Each bus has a
specialized device that initiates the transmission activity. This device
iscalledheadend.Datathatistobesenttothecomputerontheright
handsideofthesenderistransmittedonupperbus.Datathatistobe
senttothelefthandsideofthesenderistransmittedonlowerbus.
Metropolitan Area Network
The two most important components of MANs are security and
standardization. Security is important becauseinformationis being
shared between dissimilar systems. Standardization is necessary to
ensurereliabledatacommunication.
AMANusuallyinterconnectsanumberoflocalareanetworksusinga
high-capacity backbone technology, such as fiber-optical links, and
providesup-linkservicestowideareanetworksandtheInternet.
The MetropolitanArea Networks (MAN) protocols are mostly at the

datalinklevel(layer2intheOSImodel),whicharedefinedbyIEEE,
ITU-T,etc.
WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)
Awide area network (WAN) is a telecommunication network.A

wide area network is simply a LAN of LANs or Network of
Networks.WANsconnectLANsthatmaybeonoppositesidesof
a building, across the country or around the world. WANS are
characterized by the slowest data communication rates and the
largestdistances.WANscanbeoftwotypes:anenterpriseWAN
andGlobalWAN.
Wide Area Network
Computers connected to a Wide Area Networks are often

connectedthroughpublicnetworks,suchasthetelephonesystem.
Theycanalsobeconnectedthroughleasedlinesorsatellites.The
largest WAN in existence is the Internet. Some segments of the
Internet,likeVPNbasedextranets,arealsoWANsinthemselves.
Finally, many WANs are corporate or research networks that
utilizeleasedlines.
NumerousWANshavebeenconstructed,includingpublicpacket
networks, large corporate networks, military networks, banking
networks, stock brokerage networks, and airline reservation
networks.
Organizations supporting WANs using the Internet Protocol are

knownasNetworkServiceProviders(NSPs).Theseformthecore
oftheInternet.
By connecting the NSP WANs together using links at Internet

PacketInterchanges(sometimescalled"peeringpoints")aglobal
communicationinfrastructureisformed.
WANs (wideareanetworks)generally utilizedifferent andmuch

moreexpensivenetworkingequipmentthandoLANs(LocalArea
Networks). Key technologies often found in WANs (wide area
networks)includeSONET,FrameRelay,andATM.
Clarify Enterprise WANs.

An enterprise WAN (wide area networks) connects an entire
organizationincludingallLANs(LocalAreaNetworks)atvarious
sites.Thistermisusedforlarge,widespreadorganizationssuchas
corporations,universitiesandgovernments.
Clarify Global WANs.

GlobalWANs(wideareanetworks)alsospantheworldbutthey
do not have to connect LANS(Local Area Networks) within a
singleorganization.TheInternetisanexampleofaglobalWAN.
It connects diverse locations, organizations and institutions
throughouttheworld.GlobalWANS(wideareanetworks)canbe
public or private. Private WANs (wide area networks) are called
Intranet which belongs to an organization. Public WANs (wide
areanetworks)areopentoeverybodysothatanybodycanconnect
andusetheresourcesandservicesavailable.
WLANS - WIRELESS LOCAL AREA NETWORKS
WLANs(Wireless Local Area Networksor sometimes referred

to as LAWN, for local area wireless network) provide wireless
network communication over short distances using radio or
infrared signals instead of traditional network cabling.WLANs
(WirelessLocalAreaNetworks)isoneinwhichamobileusercan
connecttoalocalareanetwork(LAN)throughawireless(radio)
connection
Norman Abramson, a professor at the University of Hawaii,
developed the worlds first wireless computer communication
network,
AWLANtypicallyextendsanexistingwiredlocalareanetwork.
WLANs(WirelessLocalAreaNetworks)arebuiltbyattachinga
device called the access point (AP) to the edge of the wired
network. Clients communicate with the AP using a wireless
network adapter similar in function to a traditional Ethernet
adapter.
Network security remains an important issue for WLANs
(Wireless Local Area Networks). Random wireless clients must
usuallybeprohibitedfromjoiningtheWLAN.Technologieslike
WEPraisethelevelofsecurityonwirelessnetworkstorivalthat
oftraditionalwirednetworks.
TheIEEE802.11groupofstandardsspecifythetechnologiesfor
wirelessLANs.802.11standardsusetheEthernet
WLAN(WirelessLocalAreaNetworks)hardwarewasinitiallyso
expensivethatitwasonlyusedasanalternativetocabledLANin
placeswherecablingwasdifficultorimpossible.
All components that can connect into a wireless medium in a
networkarereferredtoasstations.Allstationsareequippedwith
wirelessnetworkinterfacecontrollers(WNICs).Wirelessstations
fallintooneoftwocategories:accesspoints,andclients.Access
points (APs), normally routers, are base stations for the wireless
network.
They transmit and receiveradio frequencies for wireless enabled

devices to communicate with. Wireless clients can be mobile
devicessuchaslaptops,personaldigitalassistants,IPphonesand
other smartphones, or fixed devices such as desktops and
workstationsthatareequippedwithawirelessnetworkinterface.
WLANS (WIRELESS LOCAL AREA NETWORKS) TYPES
Private home or small business WLAN

Commonly, a home or business WLAN employs one or two
access points to broadcast a signal around a 100- to 200-foot
radius. You can find equipment for installing a home WLAN in
manyretailstores.
With fewexceptions,hardwarein this categorysubscribesto the

802.11a,b,orgstandards(alsoknownasWi-Fi);somehomeand
office WLANs now adhere to the new 802.11n standard. Also,
because of security concerns, many home and office WLANs
adheretotheWi-FiProtectedAccess2(WPA2)standard.
ENTERPRISE CLASS WLAN
AnenterpriseclassWLANemploysalargenumberofindividual
access points to broadcast the signal to a wide area. The access
points have more features than home or small office WLAN
equipment, such as better security, authentication, remote
management, and tools to help integrate with existing networks.
These access points have a larger coverage area than home or
small office equipment, and are designed to work together to
cover a much larger area. This equipment can adhere to the
802.11a,b,g,ornstandard,ortosecurity-refiningstandards,such
as802.1xandWPA2.
Examples:
For WLANs that connect to the Internet, Wireless Application
Protocol(WAP)technologyallowsWebcontenttobemoreeasily
downloadedtoaWLANandrenderedonwirelessclientslikecell
phonesandPDAs.
STORAGE AREA NETWORK (SAN)
Astorage area network (SAN)is a type of local area network

(LAN)isahigh-speedspecial-purposenetwork.ASANtypically
supports data storage, retrieval and replication on business
networks using high-end servers, multiple disk arrays and Fibre
Channelinterconnectiontechnology.
Storage Area Networks(SANs)technologyissimilarbutdistinct

from network attached storage (NAS) technology. While SANs
traditionally employ low-level network protocols for transferring
disk blocks, a NAS device typically works over TCP/IPand can
beintegratedfairlyeasilyintohomecomputernetworks.
STORAGE AREA NETWORK (SAN)
The term SAN can sometimes refer to system area networks

instead of a storage area network. System area networks are
clusters of high performance computers used for distributed
processingapplicationsrequiringfastlocalnetworkperformance.
Storageareanetworks,ontheother,aredesignedspecificallyfor
datamanagement.
SANs support disk mirroring, backup and restore, archival and

retrievalofarchiveddata,datamigrationfromonestoragedevice
to another and the sharing of data among different servers in a
network. SANs can incorporate sub networks with network
attachedstorage(NAS)systems.
STORAGE AREA NETWORKS MAKE YOUR LIFE EASIER
SimplificationofStorageAdministrationisnowpossiblebecause
of Storage Area Networks cause cables andstorage
devicesdoesnt need to be moved physically. Moving data from
one server into another is now a breeze.Thanks to StorageArea
Networks.Lifeismucheasier.
Before,storageareanetworksprocesscantakeaslittleashalfan
hour.Butthiswasbeforeandnowwecanaccelerateit.
The boo-table features of Storage Area Networks can also be

effective and enable during recovery of data because of certain
disaster such as server failure or human error. Storage area
networks are great tools in recovering important data and back
ups. Distant location doesnt effect the storage area networks as
longasthesecondarystoragearrayisworking.
STORAGE AREA NETWORKS MAKE YOUR LIFE EASIER
Thisenablesstoragereplicationeitherimplementedbydiskarray
controllers, by server software, or by specialized SAN devices.
SinceIPWANsareoftentheleastcostlymethodoflong-distance
transport, the Fibre Channel over IP(FCIP) and iSCSI protocols
havebeendevelopedtoallowSANextensionoverIPnetworks.
In the old model like in physical SCSI layer, it supported a few

metersof distanceandnoguaranteeofbusinesscontinuity when
disaster strike.In storage area networks, the disk arrays has
accelerated and consolidated in the features like I/O caching,
volume cloning and snap shotting making business continuance
possibleorBCVs(BusinessContinuanceVolumes).
CAMPUS AREA NETWORK (CAN)
A campus area networks (CANs) is a computer network

interconnecting a few local area networks (LANs) within a
university campus or corporate campus Network. Campus area
network may link a variety of campus buildings.Acampus area
network is larger than a local area network but smaller than a
metropolitanareanetwork(MAN)orwideareanetwork(WAN).
Canalsostandforcorporateareanetwork.
Personal Area Network (PAN)

Apersonalareanetworkisacomputernetworkorganizedaround
an individual person. Personal area networks typically involve a
mobilecomputer,Personalareanetworkscanbeconstructedwith
cables or wirelessly. Personal area networks generally cover a
Networkrangeoflessthan10meters(about30feet).
PAN (Personal Area Network)first was developed by Thomas

ZimmermanandotherresearchersatM.I.T.'sMediaLabandlater
supportedbyIBM'sAlmadenresearchlab.
PERSONAL AREA NETWORK (PAN)
Wireless Personal Area Network(WPAN)which is virtually a

synonym since almost any personal area network would need to
functionwirelessly.Conceptually,thedifferencebetweenaPAN
(personal area network) and a wireless LAN (Local Area
Network) is that the former tends to be centered around one
personNetworkwhilethelatterisalocalareanetwork(LAN)that
isconnectedwithoutwiresNetworkandservingmultipleusers.
WIRELESS NETWORKS
The fastest growing segment of the computer industry is the

mobile computers such asnotebookcomputers and personal
digitalassistant(PDAs).
The wireless networks are becoming increasingly important

because the wired connection is not possible in cars or aero
planes.
Wireless networks can have many applications. A very common

exampleistheportableoffice
Peopletravelingonroadoftenwanttomakeuseoftheirportable
electronic equipment for telephone calls, e-mails, faxes, read
remotefilesetc.
Wireless networks can exist on trucks, buses, taxies, aero planes

etc. They are used where the telephone systems are destroyed in
theeventofdisasterssuchas.fires,floodsandearthquakesetc.
WIRELESS NETWORKS
Thewirelessnetworksareimportantformilitary.
Wirelessnetworksandmobilecomputingarerelatedbuttheyare
notidenticalbecauseportablecomputersaresometimeswiredand
somewirelesscomputersarenotportable.
Butsomeapplicationsaretrulymobilewirelessapplicationssuch
asaportableoffice,inventoriesbeinghandledbyPDAs,etc.
Wireless LAN is another example of wireless network. Direct

digital cellular service CDPD (Cellular Digital Packet Data) is
nowbecomingavailable:
It is possible to have combinations of wired and wireless

networking.
INTERNETWORK
Internetworkingstarted as a way to connect disparate types
ofcomputernetworking technology.Computernetwork term is used to
describetwoormorecomputersthatarelinkedtoeachother.Whentwo
ormorecomputernetworksorcomputernetworksegmentsareconnected
using devices such as a router then it is called as computer
internetworking.
InternetworkingisatermusedbyCisco.Anyinterconnectionamongor
between public, private, commercial, industrial, or governmental
computer networks may also be defined as an internetwork
or Internetworking.
Internetwork (Internet)
In modern practice, the interconnected computer networks orInternetworkinguse the

InternetProtocol.Twoarchitecturalmodelsarecommonlyusedtodescribetheprotocols
and methods used ininternetworking. The standard reference model
forinternetworkingisOpenSystemsInterconnection(OSI).
INTERNETWORK
Internetworkingis implemented in Layer 3 (Network Layer) of this
model The most notable example of internetworking is the Internet
(capitalized). There are three variants of internetwork
orInternetworking,dependingonwhoadministersandwhoparticipates
inthem:
Extranet
Intranet
Internet
IntranetsandextranetsmayormaynothaveconnectionstotheInternet.
IfconnectedtotheInternet,theintranetorextranetisnormallyprotected
frombeingaccessedfromtheInternetwithoutproperauthorization.The
Internetisnotconsideredtobeapartoftheintranetorextranet,although
itmayserveasaportalforaccesstoportionsofanextranet.
Extranet
An extranet is anetwork of internetwork
or Internetworking that is limited in scope to asingle
organisation or entitybut which also haslimited
connectionsto the networks of one or more other usually,
but not necessarily, trusted organizations or entities
.Technically, anextranet may also be categorized as a
MAN, WAN, or other type of network, although, by
definition, an extranet cannot consist of a single LAN; it
musthaveatleastoneconnectionwithanexternalnetwork.
Intranet
An intranet is a set ofinterconnected networks
or Internetworking, using the Internet Protocoland
usesIP-based toolssuch asweb browsersandftp tools,
that is under the control of asingle administrative
entity.That administrative entity closes the intranet to the
rest of the world, and allows only specific users. Most
commonly,anintranetistheinternalnetworkofacompany
or other enterprise. A large intranet will typically have
itsown web serverto provide users with browse
ableinformation.
Internet
A specificInternetworking, consisting of aworldwide
interconnectionof governmental, academic, public, and
privatenetworksbasedupontheAdvancedResearchProjects
Agency Network (ARPANET)developed by ARPA of the
U.S.Department of DefensealsohometotheWorld Wide
Web (WWW)andreferredtoasthe'Internet'withacapital
'I' to distinguish it from other generic internetworks.
ParticipantsintheInternet,ortheirserviceproviders,useIP
Addresses obtained from address registries that control
assignments.
WAN - Wide Area Network (WAN)
Difference between WAN and LAN
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WAN AND LAN
WANis the acronym for,Wide Area Networkand refers to a

network used to connect different equipment's from remote
areas.This technology connects sites that are in diverse locations.
WideAreaNetworks(WANs)connectlargergeographicarea,suchas
NewYork,Canada,ortheworld.ThegeographicallimitofWANis
unlimited.Dedicatedtransoceaniccablingorsatelliteuplinksmaybe
usedtoconnectthistypeofnetwork.Hence,aWANmaybedefined
as a data communications network that covers a relatively broad
geographic area to connect LANs together between different cities
withthehelpoftransmissionfacilitiesprovidedbycommoncarriers,
such as telephone companies. WAN technologies function at the
lowerthreelayers.
Normally,networkservicesareprovidedbyaCommonCarrierof,for
example, telephone company. Users can use services on rent basis.
Available services include telephone network, leased line, packet
switchednetwork,X.25,ISDN,framerelayandcellrelay.
WAN is composed of a number of autonomouscomputersthat are

distributed over a large geographical area. LAN can be extended
across large distances using Satellite Bridge but still this cannot
accommodate many computers arbitrarily. WAN must be scalable to
longdistancesandmanycomputers.Therefore,networkmustreplace
sharedmediumwithpacketswitchestospanlongdistancesormany
computers.Eachswitchmovesanentirepacketfromoneconnection
toanother.Thismechanismiscalledpacketswitching.
These switches are nothing but a smallcomputerwith network

interfaces,memoryand program dedicated to packet switching
function. These packet switches may connect to computers and to
other packet switches, typically high-speed connections to other
packetswitches,lowerspeedtocomputers.Thesepacketswitchescan
be linked together to form WANs. WANs need not be symmetric or
haveregularconnections,i.e.eachswitchmayconnecttooneormore
otherswitchesandoneormorecomputers.
Data delivery from one computer to another is accomplished through

storeandforwardtechnology.Packetswitchstoresincomingpacketand
forwards the packet to another switch or computer that has internal
memory. Therefore, this can hold a packet in queue if outgoing
connectionisbusy.
Whenanetworkspansalargedistanceorwhenthecomputerstobe
connectedtoeachotherareatwidelyseparatedlocationsalocalarea
networkcannotbeused.
Awide area network (WAN) must be installed. The communication

between different users of "WAN" is established using leased
telephonelinesorsatellitelinksandsimilarchannels.
Itischeaperandmoreefficienttousethephonenetworkforthelinks.
Mostwideareanetworksareusedfortransferringlargeblocksofdata
between its users. As the data is from existing records or files, the
exacttimetakenforthisdatatransferisnotacriticalparameter.
AnotherexampleofWANisanairlinereservationsystem.Terminals
arelocatedalloverthecountrythroughwhichthereservationscanbe
made.
It is important to note here that all the terminals use the same
commondataprovidedbythecentralreservationcomputer.
Becauseofthelargedistancesinvolvedinthewideareanetworks,the
propagation delays and variable signal travel times are major
problems.
Therefore most wide area networks are not used for time critical
applications.Theyaremoresuitablefortransferofdatafromoneuser
to the other which is not a time critical application. Wide area
networksarebasicallypacketswitchingnetworks.
AWANprovideslongdistancetransmissionofdata,voiceimageand
videoinformationoverlargegeographicalareasthatmaycomprisea
country,acontinentoreventhewholeworld.
WANcontainsacollectionofmachinesusedforrunninguser(i.e.application)
programs. All the machines called hosts are connected by a communication
subnet.
Thefunctionofthesubnetistocarrymessagesfromhosttohost.Thesubnet
consists of two important components; transmission lines and switching
elements.
Transmission lines move bits from one machine to another. The switching
elementsarespecializedcomputersusedtoconnecttwoormoretransmission
lines. When data arrive on an incoming line, the switching element must
chooseanoutgoinglinetoforwardthem.
The switching elements are either called as packet switching nodes,
intermediatesystems,dataswitchingexchangesorrouters.
When a packet is sent from one router to another via one or more
intermediaterouters,thepacketisreceivedatintermediaterouter.Itis
stored in the routers until the required output line is free and then
forwarded. A subnet using this principle is called a point to point,
store-forwardorpacketswitchedsubnet.
WAN'smayusepublic,leasedorprivatecommunicationdevices,and
can spread over a wide geographical area. A WAN that is wholly
ownedandusedbyasinglecompanyisoftencalledasanenterprise
network.
In most WANs the network contains a large number of cables or

telephonelineseachoneconnectingapairofrouters.
Iftworouterswhicharenotconnectedtoeachotherviaacablewant
tocommunicate,thentheyhavetodoitindirectlyviaotherrouters.
PACKET SWITCHED SUBNET
Packet switching technologies such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode

(ATM),FrameRelay,SwitchedMultimegabitDataService(SMDS),and
X.25areusedto implementWANalongwith statisticalmultiplexingto
enabledevicestosharethesecircuits.
When a packet is sent from one router to the other, via some
intermediaterouters,thepacketreceivedateachintermediaterouteris
storeduntiltherequiredoutputlineisfree.
Oncethelinebecomesfree,thepacketisforwarded.
Asubnetworkingonthisprincipleiscalledaspointtopointorstore
andforwardorpacketswitchedsubnet.
Ifthepacketsaresmallandofsamesizetheyarecalledascells.
ROUTER INTERCONNECTION TOPOLOGIES
Fig.showssomeofthepossiblerouterinterconnectiontopologies
inapointtopointsubnet.
TheLANshaveasymmetrictopologywhileWANshaveirregulartopologies.
The WAN s can also be formed using satellite or ground radio system. Satellite
networksareinherentlybroadcasttypesotheyareusefulwhenthebroadcastpropertyis
important.
With LAN additional expanses are rarely required once it is installed.

With WAN, users must continue to pay a communication cost to their
contractedcommoncarrier.
WANisgenerallyslowerintransmissionspeed.Requestingthesame
level of speed as with LAN leads to a substantial increase in
communicationcosts.
TheSatelliteBridgecanextendLANacrosslargedistanceswhilein
caseoftheWAN,itspansoverawidegeographicalarea.
LAN still can not accommodate arbitrarily many computers; WAN

mustbescalabletolongdistancesandmanycomputers.
TYPES OF TRANSMISSION
TECHNOLOGY
TYPES OF TRANSMISSION TECHNOLOGY
Thetransmissiontechnologycanbecategorizedbroadlyintotwotypes:
Broadcastnetworksand
Point-to-pointnetworks.
BROADCAST NETWORKS
Broadcast networks have a single communication channel that is

shared or used by all the machines on the network. Short messages
called packets sent by any machine are received by all the others.
Broadcastsystemsgenerallyuseaspecialcodeintheaddressfieldfor
addressing a packet to all the concernedcomputers. This mode of
operationiscalledbroadcasting.
Somebroadcastsystemsalsosupporttransmissiontoasubsetofthe
machinesknownasmulticasting.
Upon receiving a packet, a machine checks the address field. If the

packet is addressed to it then the packet is processed, otherwise the
packetisignored.
POINT-TO-POINT NETWORKS
Point to point networks consists of many connections between

individualpairsofmachines.Togofromthesourcetothedestination
a packet on these types of network may have to go through
intermediatecomputersbeforetheyreachthedesiredcomputer.
Oftenthepacketshavetofollowmultipleroutes,ofdifferentlengths.
Hence routing algorithms are very important in the point-to-point

networks.
Animportantgeneralruleisasfollows:
Small, localized networks (e.g. LAN) tend to use the

broadcasting; whereas networks located over wide
geographical areas (such as WAN) use point-to-point
transmission.
BY CONNECTION METHOD
Computer networks can also be classified according to the hardware
technologythatisusedtoconnecttheindividualdevicesinthenetwork
suchasOptical fibre, Ethernet, Wireless LAN.
By Functional Relationship
(Network Architectures)
Computer networks may be classified according to the functional
relationships which exist between the elements of the network. This
classification also called computer architecture. There are two type of
networkarchitecture:
Client-Server
Peer-to-PeerArchitecture
By Network Topology:
NetworkTopologysignifiesthewayinwhichintelligentdevicesinthe
networkseetheirlogicalorphysicalrelationstooneanother.Computer
networksmaybeclassifiedaccordingtothenetworktopologyupon
whichthenetworkisbased,suchas:
BusNetwork
StarNetwork
RingNetwork
MeshNetwork
Star-BusNetwork(Tree Topology)
TreeorHierarchicalTopologyNetwork(Hybrid Network Topology)
BY NETWORK TOPOLOGY
The term NetworkTopologydefines thegeographic arrangement
of computer networking devices.The termTopology refers to the way
in which the various nodes orcomputersof a network are linked
together. It describes the actual layout of the computer network
hardware.Twoormoredevicesconnecttoalink;twoormorelinksform
atopology.Topologydeterminesthedatapathsthatmaybeusedbetween
anypairofdevicesofthenetwork.
TheselectionofaNetwork Topologyforanetworkcannotbedonein
isolation as it affects the choice of media and the access method used.
Because it determines the strategy used in wiring a building for a
networkanddeservessomecarefulstudy.
BY NETWORK TOPOLOGY
Thefollowingfactorsareconsideredwhileselectingatopology:
Cost
Reliability
Scalability
Bandwidthcapacity
Easeofinstallation
Easeoftroubleshooting
Delayinvolvedinroutinginformationfromonenodetoanother.
TYPES OF TOPOLOGIES
While making a selection of a particular topology we consider the relative

status of different devices that are to be linked.
The nodes in a network can have following two relationships:
Peer to Peer: Inthisrelationship,allthedevicesinthenetworkhaveequalstatusin

sharingthelink.Forexample,Ring&Meshtopology.
Primary-Secondary: Inthis,onedevicecontrolsthetrafficandallotherdevices
transmitthroughprimarydevice.e.g.Startopology.
ThethreesimpleTopologythatarecombinedtoformabasicNetwork Topology.Theyare,
BusTopology,RingandStarTopology.
BUS TOPOLOGY
ThephysicalBusNetwork Topologyisthesimplestandmost widely
usedofthenetworkdesigns.Itconsistsofonecontinuous length of
cable (trunk) that is shared by all the nodes in the network and
aterminating resistor (terminator)at each end that absorbs the
signal when it reaches the end of line. Without a terminator the
electricalsignalwouldreachtheendofcopperwireandbounceback,
causingerrorsonthenetwork.
Datacommunicationmessagetravelsalongthebusinbothdirections
untilitispickedupbyaworkstationorserverNIC.Ifthemessageis
missed or not recognized, it reaches the end of the cabling and
dissipates at the terminator.Bus Network Topology requires a
multipoint connection.
Allnodesonthebustopologyhaveequalaccesstothetrunk.Thisis
accomplished using short drop cables or directT-connectors. The
numberofdevicesandthelengthofthetrunkcanbeeasilyexpanded.
Bus Topology
BUS TOPOLOGY ADVANTAGES
Theadvantagesofphysicalbustopologyare:
Itusesestablishedstandardsanditisrelativelyeasytoinstalland
theuseforsmallnetworks.
Itrequireslessmediathanothertopologies.
Failureofonenodedoesnotaffectthenetworkfunctioning.
Costislessasonlyonemaincableisrequiredandleastamountof
cableisrequiredtoconnectcomputers.
Expansioniseasier.Newnodecanbeeasilyaddedbyusinga
connector.
BUS TOPOLOGY DISADVANTAGES
ThedisadvantagesofbusTopologyare:
Ifthemaincentrallinefailstheentirenetworkcollapses.
Thebusnetworksaredifficulttoreconfigure,especiallywhentheacceptable
numberofconnectionsormaximumdistanceshavebeenreached.
Theyarealsodifficulttotroubleshootbecauseeverythinghappensonasingle
mediasegment.Thiscanhavedangerousconsequencesbecauseanybreakin
thecablingbringsthenetworktoitsknee.
Sharingasinglecommunicationchannelresultsinsloweraccesstime.
Inthistopology,highernetworktrafficslowsdownthebusspeed.Onlyone
devicetransmitsatatime,otherdeviceswaitfortheirturn.Asaresultthere
is no coordination between the devices for reservation of transmission time
slots,sodatacollisionsarefrequent.
RING TOPOLOGY
The physical ringTopologyis acircular loop of point-to-point links.
Each device connects directly to thering or indirectly through and
interface deviceordropcable.Messagetravelaroundtheringfromnode
to node in a very organized manner. Each workstation checks the
messageforamatchingdestinationaddress.Iftheaddressdoesn'tmatch
the node simply regenerates the message and sends it on its way. If the
addressmatches,thenodeacceptsthemessageandsendsareplytothe
originatingsender.
Inringtopology,thevariousnodesareconnectedinformofaringor
circle(physicalring),inwhichdataflowsinacircle,fromonestation
toanotherstation.
Ithasnobeginningorendthatneedstobeterminated.
In this topology, each device or node has a dedicated point to point
lineconfigurationwithonlytwodevicesoneithersideofit.
RING TOPOLOGY
Signalispassedalongtheringinonedirectionfromonestationtoanother
untilitreachesdestination.
Eachdeviceinringincorporatesarepeater.
Whenadevicereceivesasignalintendedforanotherdevice,itsrepeater
regeneratesthebitsandpassesthemalong.
Therearetwokindsofringtopologies:
SingleRing
DualRing
Inthistopology,eachdeviceornodehasadedicatedpointtopointline
configurationwithonlytwodevicesoneithersideofit.
Signalispassedalongtheringinonedirectionfromonestationtoanother
untilitreachesdestination.
Eachdeviceinringincorporatesarepeater.
Whenadevicereceivesasignalintendedforanotherdevice,itsrepeater
regeneratesthebitsandpassesthemalong.
RING TOPOLOGY
Therearetwokindsofringtopologies:
SingleRing
DualRing
1. Single ring-Insingleringnetwork,asinglecableissharedbyall
thedevicesanddatatravelonlyinonedirection.Eachdevicewaits
foritsturnandthentransmits.Whenthedatareachesitsdestination,
anotherdevicecantransmit.
2. Dual ring:Thistopologyusestworingstosendthedata,eachin
differentdirection.Thusallowingmorepacketstobesentoverthe
network.
Ring Topology
RING TOPOLOGY ADVANTAGES
TheadvantagesofRingTopologyare:
Theyareveryeasytotroubleshootbecauseeachdeviceincorporatesa
repeater.
A special internal feature called beaconing allows troubled
workstationstoidentifythemselvesquickly.
Thereisnomastercomputeroncontroller.Everycomputerhasequal
chancetoplacethedataandaccessthetoken.
Therearenocollisions.
Datapacketstravelatgreaterspeeds.
It is easier to locate the problems with device and cablei.e.fault
isolationissimplified.Ifonedevicedoesnotreceiveasignalwithina
specified time, it can issue an alarm. This alarm alerts the network
operatortotheproblemanditslocation.
RING TOPOLOGY DISADVANTAGES
Thedisadvantagesofringtopologiesare:
Aringnetworkrequiresmorecablethanabusnetwork.
Abreakincableringbringsdownentirenetwork(incaseof
singlering).
Addingorremovingthenodedisturbsthenetworkactivity.
Inringnetwork,communicationdelayisdirectlyproportionalto
thenumberofnodesinthenetwork.Henceadditionofnewnodes
inthenetworkalsoincreasescommunicationdelay.
ItisconsiderablydifficulttoinstallandreconfigureringTopology
Mediafailureonunidirectionalorsingleloopcausescomplete
networkfailure.
DUAL RING TOPOLOGY
The type of Topologyin which each of thenodes of the network is
connected to two other nodesin the network, with two connections to
eachofthesenodes,andwiththefirstandlastnodesbeingconnectedto
eachotherwithtwoconnections,formingadoubleringthedataflows
inoppositedirectionsaroundthetworings,although,generally,onlyone
of the rings carries data during normal operation, and the two rings are
independentunlessthereisafailureorbreakinoneoftherings,atwhich
timethetworingsarejoinedtoenabletheflowofdatatocontinueusing
asegmentofthesecondringtobypassthefaultintheprimaryring.
Dual Ring Topology
DUAL RING TOPOLOGY ADVANTAGES
TheadvantagesofDualRingTopologyare:
Veryorderlynetworkwhereeverydevicehasaccesstothetokenand
theopportunitytotransmit
Performsbetterthanastartopologyunderheavynetworkload
Doesnotrequirenetworkservertomanagetheconnectivitybetween
thecomputers
DUAL RING TOPOLOGY DISADVANTAGES
Thedisadvantagesofdualringtopologiesare:
Onemalfunctioningworkstationorbadportcancreateproblems
fortheentirenetwork.
Moves,addsandchangesofdevicescanaffectthenetwork
Muchslowerthananbusnetworkundernormalload.
STAR TOPOLOGY
The physical starTopologyuses acentral controlling hubwith
dedicated legs pointing in all directions like points of a star. Each
networkdevicehasadedicatedpoint-to-pointlinktothecentralhub.
Thereisnodirectlinkbetweenthesecomputersandthecomputerscan
communicate via central controller only. This strategy prevents
troublesome collisions and keeps the lines of communications open
andfreeoftraffic.
The routing function is performed by the central controller which

centrally controls communication between any two computers by
establishing a logical path between them. It means that if one
computer A wants to send data to another computer B,ComputerA
sendsthedatatothecontroller&thiscontrollerthensendsthedatato
computerB.
Star Topology
STAR TOPOLOGY
ThisTopology,obviously,requireagreatdealofcabling.Thisdesign
provides an excellent platform for reconfiguration and trouble-
shooting. Changes to the network are as simple as plugging another
segment into the hub and a break in the LAN is easy to isolate and
doesn'taffecttherestofthenetwork.
STAR TOPOLOGY ADVANTAGES
Thebenefitsofstartopologyare:
Itiseasiertoaddnewnodeormodifyanyexistingnodewithout
disturbingnetworki.e.expansioniseasier.
Additionofnewnodedoesnotincreasecommunicationdelay.
Ifanylocalcomputerorlinkfails,theentiresystemdoesnot
collapse.Onlythatlinkorcomputerisaffected.
Itiseasytofinddeviceandcableproblemsi.e.faultidentification
andisolationiseasier.
Mediafaultsareautomaticallyisolatedtothefailedsegment.
STAR TOPOLOGY DISADVANTAGES
The disadvantages are considered as follows:
If the central controller or hub fails, entire system

collapses.
Cabling cost is more as each node is connected

individually to the hub.
Requires more cable than most topologies
Moderately difficult to install

MESH TOPOLOGY
Inmeshtopology,eachnodeisconnectedtoeveryothernodein
the networki.e.each node has a dedicated point to point link to
everyothernodeasshown.Dedicatedmeansthatthelinkcarries
thetrafficonlybetweentwodevicesitconnects.
In this way there exist multiple paths between two nodes of the
network.Incaseoffailureofonepath,theotheronecanbeused.
Mesh Topology
MESH TOPOLOGY ADVANTAGES
It is robust as the failure of one node does not collapse the entire
system.Ifonelinkfails,theentiresystemcontinuestowork.
There is no traffic congestion problem as dedicated links are being

used.
Dedicatedlinksensurefastertransmissionwithoutanydelay.
Dedicatedlinksalsoensuredataprivacyandsecurity.
Pointtopointlinksmakesfaultidentificationandisolationeasier.
MESH TOPOLOGY DISADVANTAGES
Connectingeachdevicetoeveryotherdeviceinthenetworkmakes
installationandreconfigurationdifficult.
Ithashighcablingcostasn(n-l)/2linksarerequiredto
connectnnodes.
Fully Connected Topology:
Thetypeofnetworktopologyin which each of the nodes of the

network is connected to each of the other nodes in the
network with a point-to-point linkthismakesitpossiblefor
datatobesimultaneouslytransmittedfromanysinglenodetoall
oftheothernodes.
Thephysical fully connected mesh topology is generally too

costly and complex for practical networks, although the
topologyisusedwhenthereareonlyasmallnumberofnodesto
beinterconnected.
TREE TOPOLOGY
Tree or Hierarchical Topology:
The type of Topologyin whicha central 'root' node, the top level of the
hierarchy, is connectedtooneormoreothernodesthatareonelevellowerin
thehierarchy
i.e.,thesecondlevel,withapoint-to-pointlinkbetweeneachofthesecondlevel
nodesandthetoplevelcentral'root'node,whileeachofthesecondlevelnodes
thatareconnectedtothetoplevelcentral'root'nodewillalsohaveoneormore
othernodesthatareonelevellowerinthehierarchy,
i.e.,thethirdlevel,connectedtoit,alsowithapoint-to-pointlink,thetoplevel
central 'root' node being the only node that has no other node above it in the
hierarchy the hierarchy of the tree is symmetrical, each node in the network
havingaspecificfixednumber,f,ofnodesconnectedtoitatthenextlowerlevel
inthehierarchy,thenumber,f,beingreferredtoasthe'branchingfactor'ofthe
hierarchical tree.
Tree Topology
TREE TOPOLOGY ADVANTAGES
Supportedbyseveralhardwareandsoftwarevenders.
Itallowsmoredevicestobeattachedtoasinglecentralhuband
can therefore increases the distance a signal can travel between
devices.
Itallowsthenetworktoisolateandprioritizecommunicationfrom
different computersi.e.the computers attached to one secondary
hubcanbegivenpriorityoverthecomputersattachedtoanother
secondaryhub.
TREE TOPOLOGY DISADVANTAGES
Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling
used.
Ifthebackbonelinebreaks,theentiresegmentgoesdown.
Moredifficulttoconfigureandwirethanothertopologies
Ithashighercablingcostinsettingupatreestructure.
HYBRID TOPOLOGY
ThehybridTopologyisatypeofTopologythatiscomposedofoneor
moreinterconnections of two or more networksthatarebasedupon
different physical topologiesin a single network thatis composed of
oneormoreinterconnectionsoftwoormorenetworksthatarebased
uponthesamephysicaltopology.
Hybrid Topology
Whentwohubsofdifferenttopologiesarejoinedsothatthedevicesattachedto
themcancommunicateasinfigure,itiscalledaStar-Busnetwork.
Hybrid Topology
When two or more star topologies are linked together using a specialized hub
calledaMAU(Multi-utilizationAccessUnit),itisknownasStar-Ringtopology.
HYBRID TOPOLOGY ADVANTAGES
Reliable :Unlike other networks, fault detection and
troubleshooting is easy in this type of topology. The
part in which fault is detected can be isolated from
the rest of network and required corrective
measures can be taken, WITHOUT affecting the
functioning of rest of the network.
Scalable:Its easy to increase the size of network by

adding new components, without disturbing existing
architecture.
Flexible:Hybrid Network can be designed according

to the requirements of the organization and by
optimizing the available resources. Special care can
be given to nodes where traffic is high as well as
where chances of fault are high.
HYBRID TOPOLOGY ADVANTAGES
Effective:Hybrid topology is the combination of two or more
topologies, so we can design it in such a way that strengths of
constituent topologies are maximized while there weaknesses are
neutralized. For example we saw Ring Topology has good data
reliability (achieved by use of tokens) and Star topology has high
tolerancecapability(aseachnodeisnotdirectlyconnectedtoother
butthroughcentraldevice),sothesetwocanbeusedeffectivelyin
hybrid star-ring topology.
HYBRID TOPOLOGY DISADVANTAGES
Complexity of Design:Oneofthebiggestdrawbackofhybrid
topologyisitsdesign.Itsnoteasytodesignthistypeof
architectureanditsatoughjobfordesigners.Configurationand
installationprocessneedstobeveryefficient.
Costly Hub:Thehubsusedtoconnecttwodistinctnetworks,are
veryexpensive.Thesehubsaredifferentfromusualhubsasthey
needtobeintelligentenoughtoworkwithdifferentarchitectures
andshouldbefunctionevenifapartofnetworkisdown.
Costly Infrastructure:Ashybridarchitecturesareusuallylarger
inscale,theyrequirealotofcables,coolingsystems,sophisticate
networkdevices,etc.
What is IEEE 802.4 Protocol? Token Bus
IEEE 802.4 Token Bus
IntokenbusComputernetworkstationmusthavepossessionofatoken
before it can transmit on thecomputernetwork. The IEEE 802.4
Committee has definedtoken busstandards as broadband computer
networks, as opposed to Ethernet's baseband transmission technique.
Physically, the token bus is a linear or tree-shape cable to which the
stations are attached
The topology of the computer network can include groups of

workstations connected by long trunk cables.Logically,thestations
areorganizedintoaring.Theseworkstationsbranchfromhubsinastar
configuration,sothenetworkhasbothabusandstartopology.Token
bus topology is well suited to groups of users that are separated by
somedistance.IEEE 802.4 token bus networks are constructed with
75-ohm coaxial cable using a bus topology. The broadband
characteristicsofthe802.4standardsupporttransmissionoverseveral
differentchannelssimultaneously.
Whenthe logicalringis initialized, thehighestnumberedstationmay
sendthefirstframe.Thetokenandframesofdataarepassedfromone
station to another following the numeric sequence of the station
addresses.Thus,thetokenfollowsalogicalringratherthanaphysical
ring.Thelaststationinnumericorderpassesthetokenbacktothefirst
station.Thetokendoesnotfollowthephysicalorderingofworkstation
attachmenttothecable.Station1mightbeatoneendofthecableand
station2mightbeattheother,withstation3inthemiddle.
In such a case, there is no collision as only one station possesses a
tokenatanygiventime.Intokenbus,eachstationreceiveseachframe;
thestationwhoseaddressisspecifiedintheframeprocessesitandthe
otherstationsdiscardtheframe.
MAC Sublayer Function
When the ring is initialized, stations are inserted into it in
order of station address, from highest to lowest.
Token passing is done from high to low address.
Whenever a station acquires the token, it can transmit
frames for a specific amount of time.
If a station has no data, it passes the token immediately
upon receiving it.
The token bus defines four priority classes, 0, 2, 4, and 6
for traffic, with 0 the lowest and 6 the highest.
Each station is internally divided into four substations,
one at each priority leveli.e.0,2,4 and 6.
As input comes in to the MAC sublayer from above, the
data are checked for priority and routed to one of the
four substations.
MAC Sublayer Function
Thus each station maintains its own queue of frames to
be transmitted.
When a token comes into the station over the cable, it is
passed internally to the priority 6 substation, which can
begin transmitting its frames, if it has any.
When it is done or when its time expires, the token is
passed to the priority 4 substation, which can then
transmit frames until its timer expires. After this the
token is then passed internally to priority 2 substation.
This process continues until either the priority 0
substation has sent all its frames or its time expires.
After this the token is passed to the next station in the
ring.
Frame format of Token
Bus
Thevariousfieldspresentintheframeformatare
Preamble:This.Fieldisatleast1bytelong.Itisusedforbit
synchronization.
Start Delimiter:Thisonebytefieldmarksthebeginningofframe.
Frame Control:Thisonebytefieldspecifiesthetypeofframe.Itdistinguishes
dataframefromcontrolframes.Fordataframesitcarriesframe'spriority.For
control frames, it specifies the frame type. The control frame types include.
token passing and various ring maintenance frames, including the mechanism
for letting new station enter the ring, the mechanism for allowing stations to
leavethering.
Bus
Start Delimiter: This one byte field marks the
beginning of frame.
Frame Control:This one byte field specifies the type of
frame. It distinguishes data frame from control frames.
For data frames it carries frame's priority. For control
frames, it specifies the frame type. The control frame
types include. token passing and various ring
maintenance frames, including the mechanism for letting
new station enter the ring, the mechanism for allowing
stations to leave the ring.
Destination address: It specifies 2 to 6 bytes
destination address.
Source address: It specifies 2 to 6 bytes source
address.
Data: This field may be upto 8182 bytes long when 2
bytes addresses are used & upto 8174 bytes long when 6
bytes address is used.
Bus
The various control frames used in token bus are:
Advantages of Network
Thefollowingarethedistinctnotesinfavorofcomputer
network.
Thecomputers,staffandinformationcanbewell
managed
Anetworkprovidesthemeanstoexchangedataamong
thecomputersandtomakeprogramsanddataavailableto
people
Itpermitsthesharingoftheresourcesofthemachine
Networkingalsoprovidesthefunctionofback-up.
Networkingprovidesaflexiblenetworkingenvironment.
Employeescanworkathomebyusingthroughnetworks
tiesthroughnetworksintothecomputeratoffice.
Explain Network Services
Networkservicesarethethingthatanetworkcando.Themajor
networkingservicesare
File Services:Thisincludesfiletransfer,storage,datamigration,
fileupdate,synchronizationandachieving.
Printing Services:Thisserviceproducessharedaccesstovaluable
printingdevices.
Message Services:Thisservicefacilitatesemail,voicemailsand
coordinateobjectorientedapplications.
Application Services:Thisservicesallowstocentralizehigh
profileapplicationstoincreaseperformanceandscalability.
Database Services:Thisinvolvescoordinationofdistributeddata
andreplication.
What is Switching
Switching:Everytimeincomputernetworkyouaccessthe
internet or another computer network outside your
immediatelocation,yourmessagesaresentthroughamaze
of transmission media and connection devices. The
mechanism for movinginformationbetween different
computernetworkandnetworksegmentiscalledswitching
incomputernetwork.
Forexample:-wheneveratelephonecalledisplaced,there
are numerous junctions in the communication path that
perform this movement of data from one network onto
anothernetwork.
Network Connection Types
Network Connection Types
Thetwodifferentcomputernetworkconnectiontypesare
Point-to-Point Connection
Multipoint Connection.
Apoint-to-point connectionisadirectlinkbetweentwodevicessuchasa
computer and aprinter. It uses dedicated link between the devices.The
entire capacity of the link is used for the transmission between those two
devices. Most of today's point-to-point connections are associated with
modemsandPSTN(PublicSwitchedTelephoneNetwork)communications.
Inpointtopointnetworks,thereexistmanyconnectionsbetweenindividual
pairsofmachines.
Tomovefromsourcestodestination,apacket(shortmessage)mayfollow
differentroutes.Innetworking,thePoint-to-PointProtocol(PPP)isadata
linkprotocolcommonly used in establishing a direct connection between
two networking nodes. It can provide connection authentication,
transmissionencryption,andcompressionPPPisusedovermanytypesof
physical networks including serial cable, phone line, trunk line, cellular
telephone, specialized radio links, and fiber optic links such as SONET.
PPP is also used over Internet access connections (now marketed as
"broadband").
Internet service providers (ISPs) have used PPP for customer dial-up
access to the Internet, since IP packets cannot be transmitted over a
modem line on their own, without some data link protocol. Two
encapsulated forms of PPP, Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet
(PPPoE)andPoint-to-PointProtocoloverATM(PPPoA),areusedmost
commonly by Internet Service Providers (ISPs) to establish a Digital
SubscriberLine(DSL)Internetserviceconnectionwithcustomers.
PPPiscommonlyusedasadatalinklayerprotocolforconnectionover
synchronousandasynchronouscircuits,whereithaslargelysuperseded
the older Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP) and telephone company
mandatedstandards(suchasLinkAccessProtocol,Balanced(LAPB)in
the X.25 protocol suite). PPP was designed to work with numerous
network layer protocols, including Internet Protocol (IP), TRILL,
Novell'sInternetworkPacketExchange(IPX),NBFandAppleTalk.
Multipoint Connection
Amultipointconnection is alink between three or moredevices. Itis
also known as Multi-drop configuration. The networks havjng
multipoint configuration are calledBroadcast Networks.In broadcast
network,amessageorapacketsentbyanymachineisreceivedbyall
other machines in a network. The packet contains address field that
specifiesthereceiver.Uponreceivingapacket,everymachinechecks
the address field of the packet. If the transmitted packet is for that
particularmachine,itprocessesit;otherwiseitjustignoresthepacket.
Multipoint Connection
Broadcast network provides the provision for broadcasting &

multicasting.Broadcastingistheprocessinwhichasinglepacketisreceived
and processed by all the machines in the network. It is made possible by
usingaspecialcodeintheaddressfieldofthepacket.Whenapacketissent
to a subset of the machines i.e. only to few machines in the network it is
known as multicasting. Historically, multipoint connections were used to
attach central CPs to distributed dumb terminals. In today's LAN
environments,multipointconnectionslinkmanynetworkdevicesinvarious
configurations.

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CBT 4193

Modulatorconvertsinformationfromdigital mode to analog modeat the

When a cable Modem is switched on It scans the downstream channel

If the request is accepted, the headend puts an

Apple'sPowerBook(thelaptopMacintosh) and manynotebookpcs have

Routers are frequently used to interconnect identical networks as well as to

Internet connectivity routers

Inter provider border router

Database servers-In database servers, clients passes SQL (Structured

A server is also responsible for managing all the network resources

If any of the clients wants to access these services, it first seeks

It requires specialized servers with largememoryand secondary

Ina 4-wire connection, one pair of wires is used for the

As the physical transmission path for each direction is

A computer network isan interconnection of various computers to share

AComputerNetworking is a set of autonomous computers that permits

Any Computer Networking communication need a sender, a receiver and a

A networks model describes the organization of various computers in a

Acomputer networkscommunication can be based on centralized,

It is also known as client-server computing.

If one computer can forcibly start, stop or control another

The local area network communication can be constructed by using

The physical arrangement of computers in a communication network is

Uses of Computer Networks

Service Provided by the Network for Companies:

ComputerNetworksfall into three classes regarding the

Now-a-days LANs are being installed using wireless technologies.

LAN offers high speed communication of data rates of 4 to 16

Today, most LANs use a smart connecting switch, which is able to

ARCNET (Attached Resource Computer NETwork)

Ethernetis a family of computer networking technologies for

The physical medium use to carry Ethernet signals

A set of rules (protocols) embedded in each Ethernet

Each computer on the Ethernet Network, alsoknown as a

As each Ethernet frame is sent out on theshared medium,

Ethernet isnot a high-level performerin high-load

Its linear bus cabling system can sometimes make it

MANs rarely extend beyond 100 KM and frequently comprise a

The MetropolitanArea Networks (MAN) protocols are mostly at the

Awide area network (WAN) is a telecommunication network.A

Computers connected to a Wide Area Networks are often

Organizations supporting WANs using the Internet Protocol are

By connecting the NSP WANs together using links at Internet

WANs (wideareanetworks)generally utilizedifferent andmuch

Clarify Enterprise WANs.

Clarify Global WANs.

WLANs(Wireless Local Area Networksor sometimes referred

They transmit and receiveradio frequencies for wireless enabled

Private home or small business WLAN

With fewexceptions,hardwarein this categorysubscribesto the

ENTERPRISE CLASS WLAN

Astorage area network (SAN)is a type of local area network

Storage Area Networks(SANs)technologyissimilarbutdistinct

The term SAN can sometimes refer to system area networks

SANs support disk mirroring, backup and restore, archival and

The boo-table features of Storage Area Networks can also be

In the old model like in physical SCSI layer, it supported a few

A campus area networks (CANs) is a computer network

Personal Area Network (PAN)

PAN (Personal Area Network)first was developed by Thomas

Wireless Personal Area Network(WPAN)which is virtually a

The fastest growing segment of the computer industry is the

The wireless networks are becoming increasingly important