Note

ECEg4222 Power Electronics
and Electrical Drives
Chapter 1: Introduction to Electrical Drives
By
H. A. Suud
Basic Elements of an Electrical Drive
Many industrial equipment's driving a load need a
prime mover.
There are various types of prime movers such as:
Hydraulic
Steam
Electrical motor (most commonly used)
The main advantage of an electrical motor (EM) is, its

various characteristics like torque-speed, voltage-
current etc, which can be adjusted by suitable
control equipment.
The operating conditions can be also changed as
per load demand and additional protection circuits
can also be deployed.
EM have good starting torque and can be started on
load.
H. A. Suud
By using
ECEg4222 control
Spring 2016 equipment and EM: 2
Basically control equipment's consists of various
contactors, relays, switches, potentiometers and
number of electrical devices like diode, transistors
and thyristors.
The entire unit consisting of EM, the energy
transmitting shaft and the control equipment is
called an electrical drive.
The drive system can be defined as the combination
of an electrical drive and corresponding load.
Fig 1: Elements of an Electrical Drive System

Electrical Drive Components:
H.A
A. modern
Suud variable-speed drive has four components:
ECEg4222 Spring 2016 3
2. Power converter - rectifiers, choppers, invertors, &
cycloconverters
3. Controllers -matching the motor and power
converter to meet the load requirements
4. Load
Advantage of electrical drive:

.The control characteristics can be manipulated as per
H.requirements
A. Suud
Electric braking can be employed in easy manner
The operation is pollution free
The variety of electrical drives with wide range of
speed, power and torque ratings are available.
The efficiency is higher as no-load losses are less
They have short time overload capacity
They can be operated in different operating conditions
such as explosive, radioactive and also can be
submerged into liquids.
Most of the motors used in electrical drives are self-
starting without requirement of any starting
equipment.
Instantaneous starting of motors is possible & can
drive full load immediately.
Compared to other prime movers the operation is
H.cleaner,
A. Suud noise is less and lower maintenance
Types of electrical drives:
Group drive
Individual drive
Multi-motor drive
The single motor types are the very basic type of
drive which are mainly used in simple metal working,
house hold appliances etc.
Group electric drives are used in modern industries
because of various complexities.
Multi motor drives are used in heavy industries or
where multiple motoring units are required such as
railway transport.
If we divide from another point of view, these drives are
of two types:
Reversibletypes and
Non reversible types
H.This
A. Suuddepends mainly on the capability of the drive
Factors affecting the selection of electrical drive:
The limits of speed range
The efficiency
The braking
Starting requirements
Power factor
Load factor
Availability of supply
Effects of supply variation
Economic aspects
Reliability of operation
Environmental effects
H. A. Suud
Modern Electrical Drive Systems
About 50% of electrical energy used for drives
Can be either used for fixed speed or variable speed
75% - constant speed, 25% variable speed (expanding)
Variable speed drives typically used PEC to supply the
motors
DC motors (brushed) AC motors
SRM - IM
BLDC - PMSM
Classic
Electrical Drive
for Variable
Speed
Application:
Bulky
Inefficient
H. A.
Suud
Inflexible
Typical Modern Electric Drive Systems:
Power Electronic Converters Electric Motor

Electric Energy Electric Energy Electric Mechanical
- Unregulated - - Regulated - Energy Energy
POWER IN Power
Moto Loa
Electronic r d
Converters
feedback
Reference
Controller
H. A. Suud
Example on VSD application
Constant speed Variable Speed Drives
valve
Supply Supply
motor pump motor
PEC pump
Power out
Power out
Power
Power
In
In
Power loss
Power loss
Mainly in valve
H. A. Suud
Electric motor consumes more than half of electrical energy in the US
Fixed speed Variable speed
Improvements in energy utilization in electric motors give large

impact to the overall energy consumption
HOW ?
Replacing fixed speed drives with variable speed drives
Using the high efficiency motors
Improves the existing power converterbased drive systems
H. A. Suud
Overview of AC and DC drives
DC drives: Electrical drives that use DC motors as the prime mover
Industry workhorse for decades
Dominates variable speed applications before PE
converters were introduced
Regular maintenance, heavy, expensive, speed limit
Easy control, decouple control of torque and flux
AC drives: Electrical drives that use AC motors as the prime mover
Less maintenance, light, less expensive, high speed
Coupling between torque and flux variable spatial angle
between rotor and stator flux
Will AC drive replaces DC drive?
Predicted 30 years ago
DC strong presence easy control huge numbers
AC will eventually replace DC at a slow rate
H. A. Suud
Before semiconductor devices were introduced (<1950)
AC motors for fixed speed applications
DC motors for variable speed applications
After semiconductor devices were introduced (1960s)
Variable frequency sources available AC motors in variable
speed applications
Coupling between flux and torque control
Application limited to medium performance applications
fans, blowers, compressors scalar control
High performance applications dominated by DC motors
tractions, elevators, servos, etc
After vector control drives were introduced (1980s)
AC motors used in high performance applications elevators,
tractions, servos
AC motors favorable than DC motors however control is
complex hence expensive
Cost of microprocessor/semiconductors decreasing predicted
30 years ago AC motors would take over DC motors
H. A. Suud
Extracted from Boldea & Nasar
H. A. Suud
Converters for Motor Drives
(some possible configurations)
DC Drives AC Drives
AC Source DC Source AC Source DC Source
DC-AC-
DC DC-DC
AC-DC- AC-DC- DC-DC-

AC-DC AC-AC DC-AC
DC AC AC
Const. Variable NCC FCC

DC DC
H. A. Suud
Dynamics of Electrical Drives:
When an electric motor rotates, it is usually
connected to load which has a rotational or
translational motion.
The speed of the motor may be different from that of
the load.
To analyze the relation among the drives and loads,
the concept of dynamics of electrical drives is
introduced.
J Polar moment ofi nertia of motor load

We can describe the dynamics of electrical drive easily
by m following
the Instantaneous angular velocity
instant.
Here,
H. A. Suud
T Instantaneous value of developed motor torque
T1 Instantaneous value ofl oad torque referred to motor shaft
Now, from the fundamental torque equation
d dm dJ
T T1 Jm J m
dt dt dt
For drives with constant inertia,
dJ
0
dt
Therefore, dm
T T1 J
dt
So, the above equation states that the motor torque
is balanced by load torqueJ anddm a/ dt
dynamic torque
.
This torque component is termed as dynamic torque
as it is only present during the transient operations.
H. A. Suud
From this equation, we can determine whether the
drive is accelerating or decelerating.
Such as during accelerating motor supplies load
torque and additional torque component essentially.
So, the torque, balancing the Dynamics of electrical
braking is very helpful.
H. A. Suud
Control of Electrical Drive
Electrical drives have become the most essential
equipment nowadays in the electrical motors and
other rotating machines.
We know that electrical drives mainly accomplishes 3
kinds of work,
Starting
Speed control and
Braking.
Electrical drives enable us to control the motor in
every aspect.
But control of electrical drives is also necessary
because all the functions accomplished by the drives
are mainly transient operations i.e the change in
terminal voltage, current, etc are huge which may
damage the motor temporarily or permanently.
H.Thats
A. Suud why the need of controlling the drives rises and
Closed Loop Control of Drives:
In control system there are two types of systems:
Open loop
Close loop
Open loop control system: the output has no effect on
the input, i.e. the controlling phenomenon is
independent of the output.
Closed loop control system: is much more advanced
and scientific, here the out put is feedback to the input
terminal which determines the amount of input to the
system, for example if the output is more than
predetermined value the input is reduced and vice-versa.
In electrical drives feed back loops or closed loop
control satisfy the following requirements.
Protection
Enhancement of speed of response
To improve steady-state accuracy
H. A. Suud
Current Limit Control:
During the starting, we know if precautionary
measures arent taken there is a chance of huge
current flow through the motor circuit.
To limit the current and sense the current fed to the
motor, current limit controller is installed.
The feedback loop does not effect the normal
operation of the drive but if the current exceeds the
predetermined safe limit, the feedback loop
activates and the
Once the current is current is brought down below
the safe limitdown
brought
below the safe limit
the feedback loop
again deactivates
and in this way the
control of current
H.takes
A. Suudplace.
Closed Loop Torque Control:
This type of torque controller is seen mainly in battery
operated vehicles like cars, trains etc.
The accelerator present in the vehicles is pressed by
the driver to set the reference torque T.
The actual torque T follows the T* which is controlled
by the driver via accelerator.
H. A. Suud
Closed Loop Speed Control:
Speed control loops are perhaps the most widely
used feedback loops for drives. If we first see the
block diagram of this loop then it will be a lot easier
for
We us to understand.
can see from
the diagram that
there are two
control loops:
Inner loop
Outer loop
The inner
current control
loop limits the
converter and
motor current or
motor
Lets take torquepractical
below
H.example:
A. Suud
the safe
limit. Spring 2016
ECEg4222 23
Suppose the reference speed Wm* increases and
there is a positive error Wm, which indicates that
the speed is needed to be increased.
Now the inner loop increases the current keeping it
under maximum allowable current.
And then the driver accelerates, when the speed
reaches the desired speed then the motor torque is
equal to the load torque and there is a decrease in
the reference speed Wm* which indicates that there
is no need of any more acceleration but there must
be deceleration, and braking is done by the speed
controller at maximum allowable current.
So, we can say that during speed controlling the
function transfers from motoring to braking and
from braking to motoring continuously for the
smooth operation and running of the motor.
H. A. Suud
Types of Braking
Brakes are used to reduce or cease the speed of
motors.
We know that there are various types of motors
available (DC motors, induction motors, synchronous
motors, single phase motors etc.)
The specialty and properties of these motors are
different from each other, hence this braking
methods also differs from each other.
But we can divide braking in to three parts mainly,
which are applicable for almost every type of motors.
Regenerative Braking
Plugging type braking
Dynamic braking..
Regenerative Braking
Regenerative braking takes place whenever the speed
H.of the motor exceeds the synchronous speed.
A. Suud
This braking method is called regenerative braking
because here the motor works as generator and
supply itself is given power from the load, i.e. motors.
The main criteria for regenerative braking is that the
rotor has to rotate at a speed higher than
synchronous speed, only then the motor will act as a
generator and the direction of current flow
through the circuit and direction of the torque
reverses and braking takes place.
The only disadvantage of this type of braking is that
the motor has to run at super synchronous speed
which may damage the motor mechanically and
electrically, but regenerative braking can be done at
sub synchronous speed if the variable frequency
source is available.
Plugging Type Braking
H.Another
A. Suud type of braking is Plugging type braking.
In this method the terminals of supply are reversed,
as a result the generator torque also reverses which
resists the normal rotation of the motor and as a
result
Duringthe speed
pluggingdecreases.
external
resistance is also
introduced into the
circuit to limit the
flowing current.
The main
disadvantage of
this method is that
here power is
wasted.
H. A. Suud
Dynamic Braking
Another method of reversing the direction of torque
and braking the motor is dynamic braking.
In this method of braking the motor which is at a
running condition is disconnected from the source
and connected across a resistance.
When the motor is disconnected from the source, the
rotor keeps rotating due to inertia and it works as a
selfexcited generator.
When
Duringthebraking
motor works as a generator the flow of the
current and torque
to maintain the reverses.
steady torque
sectional
resistances are
cut out one by
one.
H. A. Suud
DC Motor Drives
Everywhere DC motors are used in large applications,
the use of drives are very necessary for the smooth
running and operating of these motors.
The DC motor drives are used mainly for good speed
regulation, frequent starting, braking and
reversing.
Different operation of electric drives for different
purposes:
We know that, normally the rotor of a DC motor is
energized by the commutation process through
brushes.
So the maximum allowable starting current is
determined by the current which can be safely
carried out by the brushes without sparking.
In general, the motors are such designed that they can
H. A. Suud
carry Spring
ECEg4222 almost
2016twice of the rated current during 29
But why so much current flows through the circuit of DC
motors during the starting condition?
This is because when the motor is at stand still
condition, there is only a small armature
resistance present in the circuit so no back emf is
generated.
That is why when the motor is started with full supply
voltage across its terminal, there is a huge current
flow through the motor, which may damage the motor
because of heavy sparking across the commutators
and a huge amount of heat is generated.
That is the reason why some precautionary
measures are taken during the starting of the DC
motors.
The speed of a DC motor drive is usually controlled
by variable resistance method, which can be also
H.used
A. Suudto limit the starting current as shown in the
When the motor gains speed and the back emf
increases, the resistances are cut out one by one
from the circuit and therefore the current is kept within
permissible limit.
H. A. Suud
Braking of DC Motors
Braking is a very important operation for DC motor
drives.
The need of decreasing the speed of a motor or
stopping it totally may arise at any moment, thats
when braking is applied.
Braking of DC motors is basically developing a
negative torquethree
There are mainly while
typesthe motor works as
generator
of braking ofand
DC as a result the motion of the motor is
motors:
opposed.
Regenerative braking
Dynamic or rheostat braking
Plugging or reverse voltage
braking
Regenerative braking takes
place when the generated
energy
E V and is supplied
negative I to the
H. A. Suud a.
source, or can be shown via
As the field flux cannot be increased beyond a
rated value, so regenerative braking is possible only
when the speed of motor is higher than the rated
value.
The speed torque characteristics is shown in the
graph above.
When regenerative braking occurs, the terminal
voltage rises and as a result the source is relieved
from supplying this amount of power.
This is the reason why loads are connected across the
circuit.
So, it is clear that regenerative braking should be used
only when there are enough loads to absorb the
regenerative power.
Dynamic braking is another type of braking of DC
motor drives where the rotation of the armature itself
H. A. Suudthe braking.
causes
Then the motor acts as a generator and current
flows in the opposite direction which indicates that
the field connection is reversed torque.
The diagram for
separately excited and
series DC motor both
are shown in figure
below.
When braking is
required to occur
quickly the
resistance (RB) is
considered to be of
some sections.
As the braking
occurs & the speed of
H.the motor falls, the
A. Suud
Plugging is a type of braking where the supply
voltage is reserved when the need of braking arises.
A resistance is also introduced in the circuit while
braking takes place.
When the direction of the supply voltage is reserved,
then the armature current also reserves forcing the
back emf to a very high value and hence braking
the
For motor.
series motor only
armature is reversed
for plugging.
The diagram of
separately excited and
series excited motors
are shown in the figure.
H. A. Suud
Speed Control of DC Motor Drives
The main application of electric drives can be said as
the need of braking of DC motors.
We know the equation to describe the speed of a
rotating dc motor drives is as:
V RA
m T
Ke Ke 2
Now, according to this equation, the speed of a motor

can be controlled by the following methods:
Armature voltage control
Field flux control
Armature resistance control
Among all of these, armature voltage control is
preferred because of high efficiency and good speed
regulation and good transient response.
H. A. Suud
But the only disadvantage of this method is that it
can only operate under the rated speed, because
the armature voltage cannot be allowed to exceed
rated value.
The speed-torque curve for armature voltage control is
shown below.
When speed control is required above the rated

speed, field flux control is used.
H. A. Suud
Normally in ordinary machines, the maximum speed
can be allowed up to twice of the rated speed and
for specially designed machines this can be allowed
up to six times of the rated speed.
The torque speed characteristics for field flux control
are shown in the figure below.
How the armature voltage control and field flux

control is made to operate below and above the
H.rated
A. Suud speed is shown in the figure below.
Now, finally coming to
resistance control
method.
Here speed is varied
by wasting power in
an external resistor
that is connected in
series with the
armature.
This method is not
used very much
because it is an
It is only used in the places where the speed control
inefficient method of
time forms only a fraction of the total running time,
controlling speed.
such as traction.
The speed torque curve of dc motor drives is given
below.
H. A. Suud
So, the application and types of dc motor drives have
been discussed very easily.
H. A. Suud
Induction Motor Drives
Induction motors can be described as a three phase,
self starting constant speed ac motors.
The reason of describing induction motors as constant
speed is because normally these motors have a
constant speed depending on the frequency of the
supply and the no of windings.
In the past it was not possible to control the speed
of the induction motors according to the need.
Thats why their use was limited and despite having
many a motors they advantages over dc motors they
could not be used because of this disadvantage.
But at the field of drives have improved due to the
availability of thyristors or SCRs, power transistors,
IGBTs and GTOs the variable speed induction motor
drives have been invented.
H. A. Suud
Though the cost of these drives are more than dc
drive, but still the use of induction motors are
increasing and they are replacing dc motors
because of their advantages.
Induction Motor Drives:
We know that the IM is self starting i.e when the
supply is given to the motor it starts to rotate
without any external help.
When an IM is started as there is no resistance
initially (i.e, during starting), there is a tendency of
huge current flow through the rotor circuit which may
damage the circuit permanently.
To overcome this problem various methods have
been introduced to limit the starting current.
Some of the methods are:
1. Star delta starter
H. A. Suud
2. Auto-
ECEg4222 transformers
Spring 2016 starter 42
4. Saturable reactor starter
5. Part winding starter
6. Ac voltage controller starter
7. Rotor resistance starter is used for starting of wound
rotor motor.
The induction motor drives
are normally designed to run
on delta connection, but
during starting the supply
is given from star connection
because then the starter
voltage reduces by 1/3
times than the delta
connection.
When the motor reaches a
steady state speed the
connection changes from
H. A. Suud
star to delta connection.
Another type of starting
method of IM is the
Auto transformer
starting.
Since we know that the
torque is proportional to
square of the voltage.
By auto transformers
the starting voltage &
current are reduced to
overcome the problem
of overheating
During due
starting the to of the transformer is set in a
ratio
very
way thathigh current
the starting current does not exceed the
flow.
safe limit.
Once the IM starts running and reaches a steady
state value, the autotransformer is disconnected
H.from the supply.
A. Suud
Another method of starting is soft-start using
saturable reactor drivers.
In this method high reactance is introduced into the
circuit so that the starting torque is closed to zero.
Now the reactance
is reduced
smoothly during
starting & the
starting current
increases & the
torque also varies
steplessly.
In this method the
motor starts without
any jerk and the
acceleration is
H. A. Suud
smooth,
ECEg4222 thats
Spring 2016 why 45
Unbalanced starting scheme for soft start is
another type of starting method where the
impedance is introduced only in one of the supply
phases.
During starting the impedance is kept very high so
that the motor operates as a single phase motor,
the
When speed
the torque
speed characteristics
attains at that time is similar
to
a curve
steadyA in the graph.
state value
the impedance is
removed completely,
at that time the curve
is similar to B, which is
the natural
characteristics of the
machine.
This starting method is
H. A. Suud
also without any jerk
Part winding starting method is special for
squirrel-cage induction motors.
In this method two or more starter winding are
connected in parallel.
When the motor
starts, any one of the
winding is connected
as a result the starter
impendence is
increased and
starting current is
reduced.
When the steady
speed is acquired by
the motor both the
windings are
H. A. Suud
connected.
Specially for wound rotor motors;
Rotor resistance starter is used.
In this method external resistors
are used in the rotor circuit to limit
the starting current.
Maximum value of resistance is
chosen to limit the current at zero,
and speed within the safe value.
As the speed increases, the
sectional resistance cut out and the
temperature rise is lower than
other methods of starting high
acceleration, frequent starts and
stops starting with heavy loads
can be done with this type of
starting method.
H. A. Suud
Braking of Induction Motors:
When it comes to controlling an electric machine by
electric drivers braking is a very important term
because it helps to decrease the speed of the motor
according to will and necessity.
Braking of induction motors can be classified mainly in
three types
1. Regenerative braking
2. Plugging or reverse voltage braking
3. Dynamic braking which can be further classified as
1. ac dynamic braking
2. self-excited braking using capacitors
3. dc dynamic braking
4. zero sequence braking
To explain that regeneration braking for induction
P 3VS IS cos S
motor, we can takeinhelp of the equation:
H. A. Suud
Here s is the phase angle between the stator
voltage and stator current, the simple words
whenever this phase angle exceeds 90 (i.e s>90)
regenerative
To explain thisbraking can take
more clearly andplace.
easily we can say that whenever
the speed of the rotor exceeds
synchronous speed,
regeneration braking occurs.
That is because whenever the
rotor rotates at a speed more than
synchronous speed there is a
reverse field occurs which
opposes the normalisrotation
Main disadvantage that theofspeed of the motor
the
has motor and therefore
to exceed braking
synchronous speed which may not
takes place.every time.
be possible
To acquire regenerative braking at a lower speed
H.than synchronous speed, variable frequency source
A. Suud
Plugging of induction motors is done by
interchanging any two of the supply terminals.
When the terminals are reversed the operation of the
machine changes from motoring to plugging.
From technical
point of view and
for better
understanding it
can be said that
the slip changes
from s to (2-s),
which indicates
that due to
reversal of the
terminals the
torque also
H.changes
A. Suud its
direction
ECEg4222 Spring 2016and 51
The first classification of dynamic braking of induction
motors is ac dynamic braking any one of the supply
phase is disconnected from the supply and then it is
either kept open or connected with the other phase.
The first type is known as two lead connection and
the second one is known as three lead connection.
To understand this braking method clearly we can
assume the system to be a single phase system.
Now the motor can be considered to be fed by
positive and negative sequence voltages.
Thats why when the rotor resistance is high the net
torque is negative and braking can be acquired.
H. A. Suud
Sometimes capacitors are kept permanent by
connected across the supply terminals of the motor.
This is called self-excited braking using capacitors of
induction motors.
H. A. Suud
This type of braking works mainly by the property of
the capacitors to store energy.
Whenever the motor is disconnected from the
supply the motor starts to work as a self-excited
induction generator, the power comes from the
capacitors
The values connected
of the across the terminals.
capacitor are so
chosen that they
are sufficient to
make the motor
work as an
induction
generator after
being
When the motor works as an IG the produced
disconnected
torque
from theopposes
supply. the normal rotation of the motor
and hence braking takes place.
H. A. Suud
Another type of dynamic braking is dc dynamic
braking.
In this method the stator of running induction
motor drives is connected
The consequences of to dc supply.
connecting a dc supply
to the stator is as follow,
the dc current produces
a stationary magnetic
field, in the rotor keeps
rotating and as a result
there is a induced
voltage in the rotor
winding, therefore the
machine works as a
generator which
opposes the motion of
H.the motor and braking
A. Suud
is acquired
Speed Control of Induction Motors:
Speed control of IMs can be done in six methods
which are:
1. Pole changing
2. Stator voltage control
3. Supply frequency control
4. Eddy current coupling
5. Rotor resistance control
6. Slip power recovery
We know that the speed of the induction motor is
inversely proportional to number of poles.
So it is possible to increase or decrease the speed
of the IM if the number of the poles are decreased or
increased respectively.
The motor in which the provision of changing the
number of poles is present, they are called pole
H. A. Suud
changing
ECEg4222 Springmotor
2016 or multi speed motor. 56
Another method of controlling the speed of induction
motor drives is the stator voltage control.
Stator voltage is directly responsible for the rotating
speed of the rotor.
Torque is proportional to voltage squared and the
current is proportional to the voltage.
So, if the stator voltage is reduced the speed reduces
and similarly if the stator voltage is increased the
speed also increases.
H. A. Suud
The speed of an IM is proportional to the product of the
supply frequency and air gap flux.
But as there is a chance of magnetic saturation
while decreasing the supply frequency, thats why not
only the frequency but the v/f (i. e the ratio of supply
voltage and frequency) is controlled and this ratio is
tried to be kept constant.
And if the speed is needed to be changed the ratio of
v/f is changed accordingly.
H. A. Suud
The eddy current speed control method is done by
placing an eddy current clutch b/n an IM is running
at a fixed speed and the variable speed load.
Now what is this eddy current clutch?
It is nothing but an IM drives in which both stator and
the rotor are allowed to rotate.
The rotor is coupled with the main induction motor.
When eddy currents are produced in the rotor drum,
their interaction with the stator field and a torque
is produced which rotates the main motor.
By controlling the dc current through the stator
winding the speed of the motor can be controlled.
Depending on the rotor resistance, the speed of the
rotor falls or increases.
H. A. Suud
The variation of speed torque characteristics with
respect to change in rotor resistance is shown in the
figures below.
This speed controlling method is better than many

other methods because of low cost.
H. A. Suud
ECE 4402 Power Electronics and
Electrical Drives
Chapter 2: Power converters to supply

electric drives
By
H. A. Suud
Semiconductor Devices
Since the advent of semiconductor power switches,
the control of voltage, current, power, and frequency
has become cost-effective.
The precision of control has been enhanced by the
use of integrated circuits, microprocessors, and VLSI
circuits in control circuits.
Some of the popular power-switching devices, their
symbols, and their capabilities are described below.
Power Diode:
It is a PN device.
When its anode potential is higher than the cathode
potential by its on-state drop, the device turns on
and conducts current.
The device on-state voltage drop is typically 0.7 V.
H.When
A. Suud the device is reverse biased, i.e., the anode is
less positive
ECEg4222 than the cathode, the device turns off
Spring 2016 62
The current through the diode goes to zero and then
reverses and then resurfaces to zero during the
turn-off mode, as shown in Fig.
The reversal of current occurs because the reverse

bias leads to the reverse recovery of charge in the
device. trr
The minimum time taken for the device to recover its
Qrr
reverse voltage blocking capability is , and the
H.reverse
A. Suud recovery charge contained in the diode is
The diode does not have forward voltage blocking
capability beyond its on-state drop.
The power diode is available in ratings of kA and kV,
and its switching frequency is usually limited to line
frequency.
Power diodes are used in line rectifier applications.
For fast switching applications, fast-recovery diodes
with reverse recovery times in tens of nanoseconds
with ratings of several 100 A, at several 100 V, but
with a higher on-state drop of 2 to 3 V are available.
They are usually used in fast-switching rectifiers with
voltages higher than 60 to 100 V and in inverter
applications.
In case of low-voltage switching applications of less
than 60 to 100 V, Schottky diodes are used.
They have on-state drop of 0.3 V, thus enabling
H. A. Suud
higher efficiency in power conversion compared to
Power Transistor:
It is a three-element device, with NPN being the
more prevalent.
The device can be turned on and off with base
current.
The device schematic and its characteristics are shown
in Fig below.
The preferred mode of operation in power circuits is

that the transistor be in quasi-saturation, i.e. at
H.knee
A. Suud operating point during its conduction state.
This device does not have reverse voltage blocking
capability.
The maximum available rating at present for the
device is 1000 A, 1400 V with on-state drop of 2 V.
Its switching frequency is very high for the bipolar
power transistor, with a lower current gain of 4 to 10,
and much in the region of 2 to 6 kHz for Darling power
transistors with current gain of 100 to 200 A.
These devices are not used very much in newer
It is a four-element (PNPN) device with three
products.
junctions.
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) or Thyristor:
The power electronics revolution started with the
invention of this device in 1956.
Its symbol and characteristics are shown in Fig below.
The device is turned on with a current signal to the
gate, and when the device is forward biased, i.e. ,
H.the anode is at a higher potential than the cathode by
A. Suud
The device can be turned off only by reverse
biasing the device, i.e., reversing the voltage across
its anode and cathode.
During the reverse biasing, known as commutation,
the device behaves like a diode.
A negative voltage has to be maintained across the
device for a period greater than the reverse
recovery time for it to recover its forward blocking
H.voltage
A. Suud capability.
The device can also block negative voltages and,
beyond a certain value, the device will break down &
conduct in the reverse direction.
This device is very similar to a power diode but has
the capability to hold off its conduction in the
forward-biased mode until the gate signal is
injected.
Its maximum ratings are 6 to 8 kA, 12 kV, with on-
state voltage drop ranging from 1 to 3 V.
The device is used only in HVDC rectifiers and
inverters and in large motor drives with ratings
higher than 30 MW.
The switching frequency of the device is very limited,
to 300 to 400 Hz, and the auxiliary circuit for its
turn-off has caused other power devices to displace
this device in all applications other than those
H.mentioned.
A. Suud
Inverter-grade SCR
Light-activated thyristors
Asymmetrical SCR
Reverse-conducting thyristor
MOS-controlled thyristor
Gate turn-off thyristor (GTO).
Gate Turn-Off Thyristor (GTO):
It is a thyristor device with gate turn-on and gate
turn-off capability.
Its symbol and characteristics are shown in Fig below.
H. A. Suud
The device comes with maximum ratings of 6 kA, 6
kV, with an on-state voltage drop of 2 to 3 V.
The maximum switching frequency is 1 kHz, and the
device is used mainly in high-power inverters.
MOSFET:
This device is a class of field-effect transistor
requiring lower gate voltages for turn-on and turn-
off and capable of higher switching frequency in the
range of 30 kHz to 1 MHz.
The device is available at 100 A at 100 - 200 V & at
10 A at 1000 V.
The device behaves like a resistor when in
conduction and therefore can be used as a current
sensor, thus eliminating one sensor device in a
drive system.
The device always comes with an anti-parallel body
H. A. Suud
diode, sometimes referred to as a parasitic diode,
The device symbol for an N-channel MOSFET and its
characteristics are shown in Fig below.
The device has no reverse voltage blocking

capability.
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT):
It is a three-element device with the desirable
characteristics of a MOSFET from the viewpoint of
gating, transistor in conduction, and SCR/GTO in
reverse voltage blocking capability.
H.Its
symbol is given in Fig below.
A. Suud
The currently available ratings are 1.2 kA at 3.3 kV
and 0.6 kA at 6.6 kV, with on-state voltage drop of 5
V occur in the future.
The switching frequency is usually around 20 kHz for
many of the devices, and its utilization at high
power is at low frequency, because of switching
loss and
Power electromagnetic-interference
semiconductor devices concerns.
Power switches
isw
ON or OFF
+ vsw
=0
isw = 0
Ploss = vsw isw = 0
+ vsw
Losses ideally ZERO !
H. A. Suud
Switching of Power Devices:
The understanding of device switching in transient is
of importance in the design of the converter as it
relates to its losses, efficiency of the converter and
the motor drive system, and thermal management
of the power converter package.
The transient switching of the devices during turn-
on and turn-off is illustrated in this section by
considering a generic device.
H. A. Suud
Ideal current and voltage sources and power
devices are assumed for this illustration. The circuit
for illustration is shown Fig above.
The switching device IS is gated on and thetd1current in
the device increases from zero to aftert a turn-on
rc
delay time .
The current transfers from the diode linearly in time
, which is the rise time of the current. VS
During this rise time, the diode is conducting, and
therefore the voltage across the switching device is the
source voltage, .
When the current tis completely transferred from the
fv
diode to the switching device, the voltage drop across
the diode rises from zero to the source voltage and
the voltage falls at the same time across the switching
device in .
H.The
A. Suud
sum of the current rise and voltage fall times is
During the conduction, the voltage across the device
is its on-state voltage drop and the power loss is
smaller.
When the gating signal goes to td2 the turn-off
condition, the switching device VS responds trv with a turn-
off delay time of .
Then, the device voltage rises to in which
forward biases the diode and t fc initiates the current
transfer from the switching device to the diode.
The current transfer is completed in .
The sum of the voltage rise time across the switching
device and current fall time is the turn-off transient
time, during which the device loss is very high.
From this illustration, the IsVon tonin tthe
losses
Esc d2 switching
ts1 td1 device
are approximately derived as follows:
Esl 0.5VI s s ts1 ts2
a) Conduction energy loss.
H. A. Suud
b) Sum Spring
ECEg4222 of turn-on
2016 and turn-off energy loss. 75
Esl Esc
Psw
c) Total power loss fc Esl Esc
ton tof
1
d) Switching frequencyfc
ton tof
.Note that the power loss is averaged over a period of
the switching period and total power loss is the sum
of the conduction and switching losses in the
switching device.
.Similarly, the power losses in the diode can be
derived.
.The switching losses are proportional to the
switching frequency and to the product of the source
voltage and load current.
.Note that, in general, the switching times are much
smaller than the conduction time, and therefore the
switching losses are less than (or at most equal to) the
H. A. Suud
conduction
ECEg4222 loss in the switching device.
Spring 2016 76
Higher switching frequency enables voltage and
current waveform shaping and reduces the
distortion but invariably is followed by higher
switching losses.
The switching illustrated is known as hard switching:
current and voltage transitions occur in the device at
full source voltage and current, respectively, during
turn-on and turn-off periods.
Resonant and soft-switching circuits enable
switching device transitions at zero voltage and
current, reducing or almost eliminating the
switching losses, but these circuits are not
economical at present and so are not considered in
motor-drive applications.
The power switches are used in the circuits to control
energy flow from source to load and vice versa.
H.This
is known as static power conversion.
A. Suud
Analysis Methods
Switching Power But,
Electronics: Pdiss vxio 0
Linear Regulator Pout

Pin
voio

vinio
vo

vin
Vx
Control to achieve @Vin 15v,Vo 5v 33%
desired
Vin output voltage
in the range of 0 to
simple and accurate
H. A. Suud
Consider switching power Adding Filter
converters
H. A. Suud
1. Method of Assumed States:
.Semiconductor switches are typically not fully
controllable.
.Lets consider how to analyze a switching circuit in
time domain
Simple Rectifier
Diodes: Uncontrolled
.Cannot sustain positive voltage (will turn ON)
.Cannot sustain negative current (will turn OFF)
H. A. Suud
The method of assumed states allows us to figure
out which un/semi-controlled switches are on as a
function of time.
1. Assume a state (on/off) for all un/semi-controlled
switches.
2. Calculate voltages and currents in the system (linear
circuit theory).
3. See if any switch conditions are violated (e.g., on
diode has negative current and off diode has
positive
VS sin t voltage.)
0 vd 0
4. If no violations, then done, else if violation
assume a new set of states go back to step 1.
VS sin t 0 id 0
.If and we assume diode off: ,
since this is not possible, diode must be on during this
condition.
.If and we assume diode on: ,
H. A. Suud
since this is not possible diode must be off during this
VS sin t 0 diodeON : VS sin t 0 diodeOFF :
Very simple example but principle works in general.

2. Periodic Steady State (PSS):
.In power electronics we are often interested in the
PSS.
.In PSS the system returns to the same point at the
end of cycle (beginning matches end), so things are
H. A. Suud
operating cyclically.
We are often interested in the PSS condition because
that is how the system operates in the absence of
disturbances.
Also we can guarantee certain facts which help us
analyze the system.
di
In PSS, V L
dt
di
L
dt
di
since 0 V 0
dt
VL 0
Therefore, Inductor in PSS
ICPSS
Capacitor in 0
This is similar to the notation that an inductor is
short at dc and a capacitor is an open at dc
H. A. Suud
The P.S.S. conditions are useful for analysis.
Consider adding a filter to smooth the ripple current
in our simple rectifier:
If we assume diode is always on in P.S.S., then:

VS sin t VL vo 0
KVL:
V sin t 0 in PSS
Take average
S
VL 0 in PSS
v0 0
H. A. Suud
If diode were alwaysvon
o 0
vo 0
For some part of the time io
, therefore, 0 must
be (part of the time).
We know diode must turn off during part of cycle by
the method of assumed states.
In PSSvo 0 vo vx
, therefore,
The negative portion of the cycle drives the inductor
current to zero:
H. A. Suud
Single-Phase DBR
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
Single-Phase Full Wave Rectifier
Another type of uncontrolled rectifier is SPFWR or
bridge rectifier, this type of rectifier is shown in Fig
below. D1 D2
During the positive halfILcycle of the D
supply
1 D2
voltage,
and are forward biased, the D3 current
D4 flow through
, load andI .
L
During the negative half cycle, and are forward
biased and supply current to the load.
V
Thus at any time, there mare two diode in series with the
load.
2Vm .
VO
The peak inverse voltage is
The average and RMS voltages are:
Vm
VRMS
2
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
Single-Phase Phase Controller Rectifiers
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
Three-Phase Tyristor Converters
Three-phase converters provide higher average
output voltage in addition the frequency of the ripples
on the output voltage is higher compared to that of
single-phase converters.
Therefore, for large power DC loads, those converters
are used.
The various types of three-phase controlled
converters are:
Three-phase half wave converter
Three-phase semi converter
Three-phase full wave converter
Three-phase dual converter
The advantages of three-phase over single-phase
converters are:
a. The ripple frequency of the converter output voltage
H. A. Suud
is higher,
ECEg4222 Spring 2016thus, the filtering requirements for
106
tat
When SCR1 is fired 30o VAN phase
, the
voltage tthe
appears across 150 o
until SCR2 is
load
fired at .
When SCR2 VAB is fired, SCR1 is reverse biased b/c of the
line-to-line voltage is negative.
Hence SCR1 is turned VBN off.
The tphase
270o voltage appears across the load until
SCR3
When isSCR3
fired atis .
t at
fired 270o
line-
VBC voltage
to-line VCN
is
negative &
SCR2 is turned
off and phase
voltage
H. A. Suud
appears across
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
DC Choppers
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
H. A. Suud
DC-AC Inverters
In Fig, it can be seen that the traction motor requires
AC input.
The main source of power is the battery which is a DC
source.
The DC output of the battery is bucked or boosted
according to the requirement and then converted into
AC using a DC-AC inverter.
The
outputof anvoltage
The function inverter is to change a dc input
waveforms of
voltage to a symmetric ideal
ac output voltage of desired
inverters
magnitude andshould be
frequency.
sinusoidal.
However, the waveforms
of practical inverters are
non-sinusoidal and
contain certain
H.harmonics.
A. Suud
Principle of Operation of Half Bridge DC-AC
Inverter (R Load)
The analysis of the DC-AC
inverters is done taking into
account the following
assumptions and
conventions:
The currentS1entering
S2 node a in
Fig is considered to be positive
The switches S1 & iare
1
unidirectional, S2 i.e. i2 they
conduct current in one direction.
The switching sequence is so designS1 (Fig) that
The current through isS
switch tfor
is 0on T1the time duration 2 T1 t T2 and
denoted as & the current
the switch for .
through isS1 .
When the switch is turned on, the instantaneous
V
vo is:
voltage across the load in
2
H. A. Suud
S2
When the switch is only turned on, the voltage
across the load is: Vin
vo
2
The waveform of the output voltage and the switch

currents for a resistive load is shown below.
H. A. Suud
vo,rms
The r.m.s value of output voltage is given by:
1 T1 Vin2 Vin
vo,rms
T1 0 4
dt
2
The instantaneous output voltage vois rectangular in
shape (Fig). Thus can be expressed in Fourier series
as: a0
vo an cos nt bn sin nt
2 n1
Due to a
the quarter
an wave symmetry
bn along the time
0
axis (Fig), the values of and are zero. The

value of 1 given
is 0 Vinby: V 2Vin
bn
d t d t
2 in
22 0 2 n
bn

2Vin
gives:
voof
Substituting value sin nt
H. A. Suud n1,3,5,... n
iL
The current through the resistor ( ) is given by:

1 2Vin
iL sin nt
n1,3,5,... R n
For n=1,
v gives the r.m.s value of the
o
fundamental component
2V as:
vo1 in
0.45Vin
2
Half Bridge DC-AC Inverter with L Load and R-

The DC-AC converter with
L Load
inductive load is shown in
the Fig.
For an inductive load, the
load current cannot change
immediately with the
output voltage.
The working of the DC-AC
H. A. Suud
inverter with inductive load
Case 1
0 t T1
In the time interval S1
the is on and the current
flows through the inductor from
points a to b. S1
t Tthe
When 1 switch is turned off
(case 1) at , the
C2 load
currentD2 would continue to flow
through the capacitor and
diode2
Case until the current falls to
zero, as shown
Similarly S in the
when2
Figure
t T
is turned 2
5.
off
, the current would continue
D1
to flow through the diode C2 and
the capacitor until the current
falls to zero, as of Figure 6.
H. A. Suud
When diodesD1 andD2 conduct, energy is fed back
to the dc source and these diodes are known as
feedback diodes. These diodes are also known ad
freewheeling diodes.

The current for purely 2Vin
1 inductive is given by:
load
iL
n1,3,5,... nL n
sin nt
2
Similarly, for the RL load; instantaneous load current

2Vin
iL as:
is obtained sin nt n
n R2 nL
2
n1,3,5,...
Where nL
1
n tan
R
The instantaneous voltage across
RL load and the instantaneous
current through it are shown in
H.Fig.
A. Suud
Single Phase Bridge DC-AC Inverter with R
Load
A single phase bridge DC-AC inverter is shown in Fig.
The analysis of the single phase DC-AC inverters is
done taking into account following assumptions and
conventions:
The current entering node a in Fig is considered to be
positive S1 ,S2 ,S3 S4
The switches & are unidirectional,
i.e. they conduct current in one direction.
H. A. Suud
S1
When the switches S2 and are turned on
0 t T1for a duration
simultaneously Vin , the input
voltage appears across the load and the current
flows from point
S3 a toSb. T1 t T2
4
If the switches and are turned on for a
duration , the voltage across the load is
reversed and the current through the load flows from
point b to a.
The voltage and current waveforms across the resistive
load are shown a in Figure
9.
Instantaneousvo output
0
cos nt can
anvoltage
2 n1
ntexpressed
bn sinbe in
Fourier series:
a0 an bn

1 0 V Vin 4Vinthe x-axis
Due to thebn d t
quarter wave
in symmetry
2 d t
along
of
(Fig), the values 2 2 and 0 2 zero.
are Then value of
H. A. Suud
is obtained as:
H. A. Suud
Substituting valuebnof gives:

4Vin
vo sin nt
n1,3,5,... n
The instantaneous current through the resistive load is
given by:
1 4Vin
iL sin nt
n1,3,5,... R n
Single Phase Bridge DC-AC Inverter with R-L

Load
The function of the inverter in case of RL load can be
explained as follows:
t T1 S1 S2
Case 1: S3 S4
At time , the switches and are
iL turned
off and the pair of switches and are turned
t T1
on. D3 D4
Due to the inductive load, the current through the
H. A. Suud
load ( Spring
ECEg4222 ) will not change its direction at
2016 and will
161
Once,iL 0 S3 , S4 & start conducting and the iL load
current builds up in opposite direction (point b to
a).
Case 2: t T2 S1 S2
At time S3 ,Sthe switches and are turned
4
on and the pair of switches and are turned
D1
off.
D2
As case 1, the current takes time to become zero and
diode &
conduct as long as its non-zero.
This condition is shown in Figure 10b.
H. A. Suud
The instantaneous current through the RL load is given

by: 4Vin
iL sin nt n
n R2 nL
2
n1,3,5,...
1 nL
Where, n tan
R
In this Fig the conduction is
divided into 4 distinct zones.
In Zone I the diode D1 D2 &
iL 0until
conduct .
Once,iL 0 S1 , S2 and
conduct and it is marked as
Zonet TII.
2 D3 D4
At , the diodes &
conduct and this is marked as
S3
Zone III.
S4
H.Finally,
A. Suud in Zone IV the
Three Phase DC-AC Inverters
Three phase inverters are normally used for high
power applications. The advantages of a three phase
inverter are:
The frequency of the output voltage waveform depends
on the switching rate of the switches and hence can be
varied over a wide range.
The direction of rotation of the motor can be reversed
by changing the output phase sequence of the inverter.
The ac output voltage can be controlled by varying the
The general
dc link voltage.
configuration of a
three phase DC-AC
inverter is shown in
Fig.
Two types of control
1800 can be applied
signals
to the
120 0 switches:
H. A. Suud

ECEg4222 conduction
Spring 2016 164
180-Degree Conduction with Star Connected
Resistive Load
The configuration of the three phase inverter with star
connected resistive load is shown in Fig. The following
convention is followed: :
Ra a,RbborRccand
A current leaving a node point R entering the
neutral point n is assumed to be positive.
All the three resistances are equal, .
H. A. Suud
1800 for
In this mode of operation each switch conducts
.
Hence,Sat any instant of time three switches remain
1
on.
When is S
on, the terminal a gets connected to the
4
positive terminal of input DC source.
Similarly, when is on, terminal a gets connected to
the negative
600 terminal of input DC source.
There are six possible modes of operation in a cycle
and each mode is of duration and the
explanation of each mode S5 isS6as follows:
S1
0 t 3
Mode 1:
In this mode the switches , and are turned on
for time interval .
As a result of this the terminals a and c are connected
Ra ,Rb &Rc
to the positive terminal of the input DC source and
H. A. Suud
the terminal
ECEg4222 b is connected to the negative terminal
Spring 2016 166
The equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 3b.
The equivalent resistance of the circuit shown in

Figure 3b is:
H. A. Suud
R 3R
Req R
2 2
The current
i delivered by the DC input source is:
Vin 2Vin
i
Req 3 R
The currents
ia ib , icand are:
1Vin
ia ic
3R
Keeping the current convention in mind,
2Vin
ib i
3R
Having determined the currents through each branch,
the voltage across each branch is:
Vin 2Vin
van vcn iaR ; vbn ibR
3 3
H. A. Suud
Mode 2:
S6 S1 ,
In this mode the switches S2
and are turned on
for timeinterval
3 t 2 3 . .
The current flow and the equivalent circuits are shown
in Figure 4a and Figure 4b respectively.
H. A. Suud
Following the reasoning given for mode 1, the currents
through each branch and the voltage drops are given
by: 1Vin 2Vin
ib ic ; ia
3R 3R
Vin 2Vin
vbn vcn ; van
3 3
Mode 3: S1 S2 S3
In this mode
2 3the
t switches
and ,
are turned on
for time interval . .
The current flow and the equivalent circuits are shown
in Figure 5a and Figure1V5b respectively.
2V
ia ib in
; ic in
3R 3R
Vin 2Vin
van vbn ; vcn
H. A. Suud 3 3
For modes 4, 5 and 6 the equivalent circuits will be
same as modes 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
The voltages and currents for each mode are: .
H. A. Suud
Mode 4 1Vin 2Vin
ia ic ; ib
3R 3R
Vin 2Vin
van vcn ; vbn
3 3
Mode 5 1Vin 2Vin
ib ic ; ia
3R 3R
Vin 2Vin
vbn vcn ; van
3 3
Mode 6 1Vin 2Vin
ia ib ; ic
3R 3R
Vin 2Vin
van vbn ; vcn
3 3
The plots of the phase voltages van vbn ( ,
vcn and )
and
ia the
ib currents
ic ( , and ) are shown in
H.Figure
A. Suud 6.
H. A. Suud
Having known the phase voltages, the line voltages
can also be determined as:
vab van vbn
vbc vbn vcn
vca vcn van
The plots of line voltages are also shown in Figure 6
and the phase and line voltages can be expressed in
terms ofFourier series as:
4V n n
van in
1 sin sin sin nt
n1,3,5,... 3n 2 6

4Vin n n 2n
vbn 1 sin sin sin nt
n1,3,5,... 3n 2 6 3

4Vin n n 4n
vcn 1 sin sin sin nt
n1,3,5,... 3n 2 6 3
H. A. Suud

4Vin n n n
vab van vbn sin sin sin nt
n1,3,5,... n 2 3 6

4Vin n n n
vbc vbn vcn sin sin sin nt
n1,3,5,... n 2 3 2

4Vin n n 7n
vca vcn van sin sin sin nt
n1,3,5,... n 2 3 6
H. A. Suud
AC-AC Converters
A power electronic AC-AC converter, in generic form,
accepts electric power from one system and converts
it for delivery to another ac system with waveforms of
different amplitude, frequency, and phase.
They may be single-or three-phase types depending on
their power ratings.
The AC-AC converters employed to vary the RMS
voltage across the load at constant frequency are
known as ac voltage controllers or ac regulators.
The voltage control is accomplished either by:
phase control under natural commutation using pairs of
SCRs or triacs
by on|off control under forced commutation using fully
controlled self-commutated switches such as Gate Turn-
off Thyristors (GTOs), power transistors, Insulated Gate
Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs), MOS-controlled Thyristors
H. A. Suud
(MCTs),
ECEg4222 etc.
Spring .
2016 176
Single-Phase AC-AC Voltage Controller
The basic power circuit of a single-phase AC-AC voltage
controller, as shown in Fig, is composed of a pair of
SCRs connected back-to-back (also known as
inverse-parallel or antiparallel) between the ac
supply and the load.
This connection
provides a
bidirectional full-
wave symmetrical
control.
With phase control, the switches conduct the load
current for a chosen period of each input cycle of
voltage and with on-off control the switches connect
the load either for a few cycles of input voltage and
disconnect it for the next few cycles (integral cycle
control) or the switches are turned on and off several
H. A. Suud
times Spring
ECEg4222 within alternate half-cycles of input voltage (ac
2016 177
Phase-Controlled Single-Phase AC Voltage
Controller T1 T2

For a full-wave, symmetrical phase
control, the SCRs
and in the above Fig are gated at and
, respectively,
From the zero crossing of the input voltage and by
varying , the power flow to the load is controlled
through voltage control in alternate half-cycles.
As long as one SCR is carrying current, the other SCR
remains reverse-biased by the voltage drop across
the conducting SCR.
Operation with R-load:
Fig below shows the typical voltage and current
waveforms for the single-phase bidirectional phase-
controlled ac voltage controller with resistive load.
The output voltage and current waveforms have half-
H. A. Suud
wave Spring
ECEg4222 symmetry
2016 and thus no dc component. 178
If vs 2VS sint is the
source voltage, then the rmsT1

output voltage with triggered
at can be found from the
half-wavesymmetry as: 1 2
1
VO 2VS2 sin2 t d t

12
sin2
VS 1
2
VO VS
Note that varied
can be
from to 0 by varying from
0 to .
VO
IO of load current:
The rms value
R
H. A. Suud
The input power factor:
12
PO VO sin2
1
VA VS 2
The average SCR current:
1
IA,SCR 2VS sint d t
2 R
As each SCR carries half the line
current, the RMS current in each
SCR is: I
O,SCR IO 2
Operation with RL-load:

Fig shows the voltage and current waveforms for the
controller. T1
t
Due to the inductance, the current carried by the SCR
may not fall at
tot zero when the input
voltage goes negative and may continue until
H. A. Suud
, theSpring
ECEg4222 extinction
2016 angle, as shown. 180

angle
of the SCR depends on the firing delay & the

load impedance angle IO t for the load
. The expression

current when conducting from to can be
derived by solving the relevant Kirchhoff voltage
equation: 2V t tan
iO t sin t sin e ; t
Z
Where Z R L
2 2
tan1 L R
iO
The angle when current
determined from the following transcendental O
falls to zero, Ican be
0
sin by
equation obtained sin e tan
putting
H.The
rms output voltage:
A. Suud
12
1 2 2
VO 2VS sin t d t

12
VS sin2 sin2

2 2
The RMS SCR current can be obtained:
12
1 2
IO,SCR i d t
2 o

The RMS load current
IO 2IO,SCR
The average value of SCR current
1
IO,SCR
2 i d t
O
H. A. Suud
Gating Signal Requirements
For the inverse parallel SCRs, the gating signals of
SCRs must be isolated from one another as there is
noFor common
R-load, cathode.
each SCR stops
conducting at the end of each
halfcycle and under this
condition, single short pulses
may be used for gating as shown
in the previous Fig.
With RL load, T2 however, this t single

shortT1pulse gating is not suitable.
When SCR is triggered
, SCR isT still conducting
1
due to the load inductance. T2
By the time T2 the SCR stops
conducting at , the gate pulse
for SCR has already T1 ceased
H. A. Suud
and will fail to turn on,
This necessitates application of a sustained gate pulse
either in the form of a continuous signal for the half-
cycle period, which increases the dissipation in SCR
gate circuit and a large isolating pluse transformer or
better a train of pulses (carrier frequency gating) to
overcome these
difficulties.

Operation withsin : If
sin , 0then

and

As the conduction angle cannot and
exceed
the load current must pass through
zero, the control
range of is .
With narrow gating pulses and , only
one SCR
will conduct resulting in a rectifier action as shown.
Even with a train
T1 of pulses, if t , the Tchanges
t in

2
wont change the output voltage and current but
H. A. Suud
both SCRs will conduct for the period
ECEg4222 Spring 2016
with 184
( 0
This dead zone to ), whose duration varies

with the load impedance angle , is not a desirable
feature in closed-loop control schemes.
An alternative approach to the phase control with
respect to the input voltage zero crossing has been
reported in which is defined with respect to the
instant when it is the load current (not the input

voltage) that reaches zero, this angle being called the
hold-off angle ( ) or the control angle.
This method requires sensing the load current, which
may otherwise be required anyway in a closed-loop
controller for monitoring or control purposes.
Power Factor and Harmonics:
As in the case of phase controlled rectifiers, the
important limitations of the phase-controlled ac
voltage controllers are the poor power factor and
H.the introduction of harmonics in the source currents.
A. Suud
on
The input power factor depends , and as
increases, the power factor decreases.
The harmonic distortion increases and the quality of
the input current decreases with increase of firing
angle.
The variations of low-
order harmonics with the
firing angle as computed
by Fourier analysis of
the voltage waveform of
(with R-load) are shown in
Fig below.
Only odd harmonics exist
in the input current
because of half-wave
symmetry.
H. A. Suud
Fully Controlled Three-Phase Three-Wire AC
Voltage Controller
Star-Connected Load with Isolated Neutral
The analysis of operation of the full-wave controller
with isolated neutral as shown in Fig is, as mentioned,
quite complicated in comparison to that of a single-
phase controller, particularly for an RL or motor load.
H. A. Suud
As a simple example, the operation
of this controller is considered here
with a simple star-connected R-
load.
The 6 SCRs 60 o
are turned on in the
sequence 1-2-3-4-5-6 at
intervals and the gate signals are
sustained throughout the possible
conduction angle.
30,75 & 120 o
The output phase voltage
waveforms for
for a
balanced three-
phase R-load are shown in Fig.
At any interval, either three SCRs
H.or
A. Suud
two SCRs, or no SCRs may be

Depending on , there may be three operating
modes. 0 60o
Mode 1 (also known as Mode 2|3):
There are periods when three SCRs are conducting,
one in each phase 30for
o either direction and periods
t 0 T5
when T6 just two SCRs conduct.
an 0a
For example,vwith in Fig a, assume that
at t 30o T1SCRs and are conducting, & the T5 T6
current through van the
VANR-load in a-phase is zero making
.
T5 60o T5
At , receives a gate pulse and starts
T1
conducting; T6 & van 1 2on
remain vAB and .
The90
o
T2
current in reaches zero T at 6 T1 , Tturning
2
van VAN
off. o
120 T6and van 1 2vAC
With staying Ton,
1 T2 .
At , is turned on, the three SCRs , and
H. A. Suud
are then
ECEg4222 conducting
Spring 2016 and . 189
Thus with the progress of firing in sequence until
60o
, the number of SCRs conducting at a particular
instant alternates between two and three.
Mode 2 (also known as Mode 90o
60o2|2):
Two SCRs, one in each phase, always conduct.
For 75o shown in Fig b, justprior
75o to T T6,
5
SCRs and van conducting
were 0 and .
At 75o T, is turned T6 on, continues to conduct
T5
1
whilevCN turns off vanas
1 2vAB is negative;
. T2 135o T6 van 1 2vAC
When is turned on T3at , T1is turned off and
.
The next SCR to turn on is , which turns off .

One SCR is always turned off when another is turned
on in this range of and the output is either one-
half line-to-line voltage or zero.
H. A. Suud
Mode 3 (also known as Mode 150o
90o0|2):
When none or two SCRs conduct.
For 120o van on
(Fig c), earlier no SCRs were 0 and
. 120o T1 T6
At , SCR is given a gate signal while
has vABa gate signal T1 already
T6 applied.
an 1 2vAB
As is vpositive, and are forward-biased
and they
T1 begin
T6 to conduct vABand .
Both and turn off when becomes
T2 T1
negative.o
150
When a gate signal is given to
150o , it turns on and
turns on again.
0 150o
For , there is no period when two SCRs are
conducting and the output voltage is zero at a
.
H.Thus,
A. Suud the range of the firing angle control is
ECEg4222 . Spring 2016 191
vAN 2VS sint

vBN 2VS sin t 120o
vCN 2V sin t 240
S
o
The expressions for the RMS output phase voltage

V O
can be derived for the three modes as:
12
3 3
0 60o
VO VS 1 sin2
2 4
12
1 3 o
60 90
o o
VO VS
2 4

sin2 sin 2 60

12
5 3 3 o
90 150
o o
VO VS
4 2 4

sin 2 60

H. A. Suud
ECE 4402 Power Electronics
and Electrical Drives
Chapter 3: Electrical Drives and Control
By
H. A. Suud
Drive Characteristics
Electrical Drives:
Motion control is required in large number of
industrial and domestic applications like transportation
systems, rolling mills, paper machines, textile mills,
machine tools, fans, pumps, robots, washing machines
etc.
Systems employed for motion control are called
DRIVES, and may employ any of prime movers such
as diesel or petrol engines, gas or steam turbines,
steam engines, hydraulic motors and electric motors,
for supplying mechanical energy for motion control.
Drives employing electric motors are known as
ELECTRICAL DRIVES.
An ELECTRIC DRIVE can be defined as an
electromechanical device for converting electrical
H. A. Suud
energy into mechanical energy to impart motion 194
ECEg4222 Spring 2016
to
Classification of Electric Drives:
According to Mode of Operation
Continuous duty drives
Short time duty drives
Intermittent duty drives
According to Means of Control
Manual
Semi automatic
Automatic
According to Number of machines
Individual drive
Group drive
Multi-motor drive
According to Dynamics and Transients
Uncontrolled transient period
Controlled transient period
According to Methods of Speed Control
Reversible and non-reversible uncontrolled constant speed.
Reversible and non-reversible step speed control.
Variable position control.
Reversible and non-reversible smooth speed control.
H. A. Suud
Comparison between DC and AC drives:
H. A. Suud
Power Electronic Converters in ED Systems
Converters for Motor Drives
Configurations of Power Electronic Converters depend on:
Sources available
Type of Motors
Drive Performance - applications

- Braking
- Response
- Ratings
H. A. Suud
DC DRIVES
Available AC source to control DC motor (brushed)
AC-DC-
AC-DC DC
Uncontrolled Rectifier
Single-phase Control
Control
Three-phase
Controlled Rectifier DC-DC Switched mode
Single-phase 1-quadrant, 2-quadrant
Three-phase 4-quadrant
H. A. Suud
DC DRIVES
AC-DC-DC DC-DC: Two-quadrant Converter
Va
T1 D1
+
ia
Vdc Q2 Q1
+ Ia
D2
T2
Va
T1 conducts va = Vdc
H. A. Suud
DC DRIVES
Va
T1 D1
+
ia
Vdc Q2 Q1
+ Ia
D2
T2
Va
D2 conducts va = 0 T1 conducts va = Vdc
Va Eb
Quadrant 1 The average voltage is made larger than the back emf
H. A. Suud
DC DRIVES
Va
T1 D1
+
ia
Vdc Q2 Q1
+ Ia
D2
T2
Va
D1 conducts va = Vdc
H. A. Suud
DC DRIVES
Va
T1 D1
+
ia
Vdc Q2 Q1
+ Ia
D2
T2
Va
T2 conducts va = 0 D1 conducts va = Vdc
Va Eb
Quadrant 2 The average voltage is made smallerr than the back emf, thus
forcing the current to flow in the reverse direction
H. A. Suud
DC DRIVES
vc
2vtri
+
vA Vdc
-
+
vc
H. A. Suud
DC DRIVES
AC-DC-DC DC-DC: Four-quadrant Converter
leg A leg B
+ D1 D3
Q1 Q3
+Va
Vdc
D4 D2
Q4 Q2
Positive current
va = Vdc when Q1 and Q2 are ON
H. A. Suud
DC DRIVES
leg A leg B
+ D1 D3
Q1 Q3
+Va
Vdc
D4 D2
Q4 Q2
Positive current
va = Vdc when Q1 and Q2 are ON
va = -Vdc when D3 and D4 are ON
va = 0 when current freewheels through Q and D
H. A. Suud
DC DRIVES
leg A leg B
+ D1 D3
Q1 Q3
+Va
Vdc
D4 D2
Q4 Q2
Positive current Negative current

va = Vdc when Q1 and Q2 are ON va = Vdc when D1 and D2 are ON
va = -Vdc when D3 and D4 are ON
va = 0 when current freewheels through Q and D
H. A. Suud
DC DRIVES
leg A leg B
+ D1 D3
Q1 Q3
+Va
Vdc
D4 D2
Q4 Q2
Positive current Negative current

va = Vdc when Q1 and Q2 are ON va = Vdc when D1 and D2 are ON
va = -Vdc when D3 and D4 are ON va = -Vdc when Q3 and Q4 are ON
va = 0 when current freewheels through Q and D va = 0 when current freewheels through Q and D
H. A. Suud
DC DRIVES
Bipolar switching scheme output
AC-DC-DC swings between VDC and -VDC
vc
2vtri
Vdc
Vdc
+ + vA
vA vB 0
- - Vdc
vB
0
vc Vdc
+ vAB
_ -Vdc
H. A. Suud
DC DRIVES
Unipolar switching scheme output
AC-DC-DC swings between Vdc and -Vdc
vc
Vtri
-vc
Vdc
+ + Vdc
vA vB
vA
0
- -
Vdc
vc vB
0
+
Vdc
_
vAB
0
-vc
H. A. Suud
DC DRIVES
Armature
200
current 200
150 150 Armature

Vdc 100 Vdc 100
current
50 50
0 0
-50 -50
Vdc -100 -100
-150 -150
-200 -200
0.04 0.0405 0.041 0.0415 0.042 0.0425 0.043 0.0435 0.044 0.0445 0.045 0.04 0.0405 0.041 0.0415 0.042 0.0425 0.043 0.0435 0.044 0.0445 0.045
Bipolar switching scheme Unipolar switching scheme
Current ripple in unipolar is smaller

Output frequency in unipolar is effectively doubled
H. A. Suud
AC DRIVES
AC-DC-AC
control
The common PWM technique: CB-SPWM with ZSS

H. A. Suud SVPWM
Modeling and Control of Electrical Drives
Control the torque, speed or position
Cascade control structure
Example of current control in cascade control structure
* * T*
+ + +

position speed current
controller controller controller converter Motor
kT

1/s
H. A. Suud
Current controlled converters in DC Drives - Hysteresis-based
ia
Vdc
+
iref
Va

va
iref + ierr q
_ q
High bandwidth, simple implementation,

insensitive to parameter variations
ierr
Variable switching frequency depending on
operating
H. A. Suudconditions
Current controlled converters in DC Drives - PI-based
Vdc
iref + vc vPulse
tri width
PI vc modulator
qqq

H. A. Suud
Modeling of the Power Converters: DC drives with Controlled rectifier
+
vc firing controlled
circuit rectifier Va
vc(s) va(s)
? DC motor
The relation between vc and va is determined by the firing circuit

It is desirable to have a linear relation between vc and va
H. A. Suud
Cosine-wave crossing control
Vm
Input voltage
0 2 3 4
vc vs
Cosine wave compared with vc
Results of comparison trigger SCRs
Output voltage
H. A. Suud
Cosine-wave crossing control Vscos(t)
Vscos() = vc
Vm
vc
0 2 3 4 cos 1
v
s
2Vm
vc vs Va cos

2Vm 1 v c

Va
cos cos

vs
2Vm v c
Va
vs

A linear relation between vc and Va

H. A. Suud
Va is the average voltage over one period of the waveform

- sampled data system
Delays depending on when the control signal changes normally taken

as half of sampling period
H. A. Suud
T
s
G H (s) Ke 2
Single phase, 50Hz

vc(s) Va(s)
2Vm
K T=10ms
Vs
Three phase, 50Hz

3VL L ,m
K T=3.33ms
Vs
Simplified if control bandwidth is reduced to much lower than the

sampling frequency
H. A. Suud
+
iref current vc firing controlled
controller Va
circuit rectifier

To control the current current-controlled converter

Torque can be controlled
Only operates in Q1 and Q4 (single converter topology)
H. A. Suud
Modeling of the Power Converters: DC drives with SM Converters
Vdc
Switching signals obtained by comparing
control signal with triangular wave +
Va
vtri
q
vc
We want to establish a relation between vc and Va
AVERAGE voltage
vc(s) Va(s)
? DC motor
H. A. Suud
Ttri
1 Vc > Vtri
q
vc
0 Vc < Vtri
1 t Ttri
d
Ttri t
q dt
1
t on

0 Ttri
ton
Vdc
1 dTtri
Va Vdc dt dVdc
Ttri 0
H. A. Suud 0
d
0.5
vc
-Vtri
Vtri
-Vtri vc
For vc = -Vtri d = 0
H. A. Suud
d
0.5
vc
-Vtri -Vtri
Vtri
vc
Vtri
For vc = 0 d = 0.5
H. A. Suud For vc = Vtri d=1
d
1
d 0.5 vc
0.5 2Vtri
vc
-Vtri Vtri
Vtri vc
Vtri
For vc = 0 d = 0.5
H. A. Suud For vc = Vtri d=1
Thus relation between vc and Va is obtained as:
Vdc
Va 0.5Vdc vc
2Vtri
Introducing perturbation in vc and Va and separating DC and AC components:
Vdc
DC: Va 0.5Vdc vc
2Vtri
~ Vdc ~
AC: va vc
2Vtri
H. A. Suud
Taking Laplace Transform on the AC, the transfer function is obtained as:
v a ( s) Vdc

v c ( s) 2Vtri
vc(s) Vdc va(s)

DC motor
2Vtri
H. A. Suud
Bipolar switching scheme
Vdc
vc
2vtri
-Vdc
q
vtri
+
Vdc
Vdc vA
+ VAB
0
vc
Vdc
vB
0
q
Vdc
vAB
v v
d A 0.5 c dB 1 d A 0.5 c -Vdc
2Vtri 2Vtri
Vdc Vdc Vdc

VA 0.5Vdc vc VB 0.5Vdc vc VA VB VAB vc
2Vtri 2Vtri Vtri
H. A. Suud
Bipolar switching scheme
v a ( s) Vdc

v c ( s) Vtri
vc(s) Vdc va(s)

DC motor
Vtri
H. A. Suud
Vdc
Unipolar switching scheme vc
Leg b
Vtri
+ -vc
vtri Vdc
qa
vc
vA
Leg a
vtri
-vc qb vB
vc vc vAB
d A 0.5 dB 0.5
2Vtri 2Vtri
Vdc Vdc Vdc

VA 0.5Vdc vc VB 0.5Vdc vc VA VB VAB vc
2Vtri 2Vtri Vtri
The same average value weve seen for bipolar !

H. A. Suud
Unipolar switching scheme
v a ( s) Vdc

v c ( s) Vtri
vc(s) Vdc va(s)

DC motor
Vtri
H. A. Suud
DC motor separately excited or permanent magnet

di a d m
v t ia R a L a ea Te Tl J
dt dt
Te = kt ia ee = kt
Extract the dc and ac components by introducing small
perturbations in Vt, ia, ea, Te, TL and m
ac components dc components
~
~ d i
v t ia R a L a a ~
~ ea Vt Ia R a E a
dt
~ ~
Te k E ( ia ) Te k E Ia
~ ~)
e e k E ( Ee k E
~ ~ ~)
d(
~
Te TL B J Te TL B()
H. A. Suud dt

Perform Laplace Transformation on ac components
~
~ ~ d ia ~ Vt(s) = Ia(s)Ra + LasIa + Ea(s)
v t ia R a L a ea
dt
~ ~ Te(s) = kEIa(s)
Te k E ( ia )
~ ~)
e e k E ( Ea(s) = kE(s)
~ ~ ~)
d(
~
Te TL B J Te(s) = TL(s) + B(s) + sJ(s)
dt
H. A. Suud
Tl (s )
-
Ia (s ) Te (s )
Va (s ) 1 1 (s )
kT
+ R a sL a + B sJ
-
kE
H. A. Suud
q
vtri
Torque +
controller
Tc +
Vdc

q kt
DC motor
Tl (s )
Converter
Te (s ) Torque Vdc Va (s ) 1 Ia (s ) Te (s ) - 1 (s )
kT
controller R a sL a B sJ
+ Vtri,peak + +
- -
kE
H. A. Suud
Closed-loop speed control an example

Design procedure in cascade control structure
Inner loop (current or torque loop) the fastest

largest bandwidth
The outer most loop (position loop) the slowest

smallest bandwidth
Design starts from torque loop proceed towards

outer loops
H. A. Suud

OBJECTIVES:
Fast response large bandwidth
Minimum overshoot
good phase margin (>65o) BODE PLOTS
Zero steady state error very large DC gain
METHOD
Obtain linear small signal model
Design controllers based on linear small signal model
Perform large signal simulation for controllers verification

H. A. Suud
Ra = 2 La = 5.2 mH
B = 1 x104 kg.m2/sec J = 152 x 106 kg.m2
ke = 0.1 V/(rad/s) kt = 0.1 Nm/A
Vd = 60 V Vtri = 5 V
fs = 33 kHz
PI controllers Switching signals from comparison

of vc and triangular waveform
H. A. Suud
Torque controller design

Open-loop gain
Bode Diagram
From: Input Point To: Output Point
150
kpT= 90
100
compensated
Magnitude (dB)
50
kiT= 18000
-50
90
45
Phase (deg)
compensated
-45
-90
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
H. A. Suud Frequency (rad/sec)

Speed controller design
* + T* T
Speed 1 1
controller
B sJ
Torque loop
H. A. Suud
Speed controller design

Open-loop gain
Bode Diagram
From: Input Point To: Output Point
150
kps= 0.2
100
Magnitude (dB)
kis= 0.14
50
compensated
-50
0
-45
Phase (deg)
-90
-135 compensated
-180
H. A. Suud 10
-2 -1
10 10
0
10
1 2
10
3
10
4
10
ECEg4222 Spring 2016 Frequency (Hz) 241
Large Signal Simulation results
40
20
Speed 0
-20
-40
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45
1
Torque
0
-1
-2
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45
H. A. Suud
Modeling of the Power Converters: IM drives
INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVES
Scalar Control Vector Control
Const. V/Hz is=f(r) FOC DTC
Rotor Flux Stator Flux Circular Hexagon DTC

Flux Flux SVM
H. A. Suud
Control of induction machine based on steady-state model

(per phase SS equivalent circuit):
Is Lls Llr
R Ir
s
+
+
Lm
Vs Rr/s
Eag
Im

H. A. Suud
Te
Pull out
Torque Intersection point
(Tmax) (Te=TL) determines the
Te
steady state speed
Trated TL
sm r
s rated rotor s
H. A. Suud
Given a load T characteristic, the steady-state speed can be

changed by altering the T of the motor:
Variable voltage (amplitude),

Pole changing
variable frequency (Constant
Synchronous speed change
V/Hz)
with no. of poles
Using power electronics
Discrete step change in speed
converter
Operated at low slip frequency
Variable voltage (amplitude),

frequency fixed
E.g. using transformer or triac
Slip becomes high as voltage
reduced low efficiency
H. A. Suud
Variable voltage, fixed frequency

e.g. 3phase squirrel cage IM
600
V = 460 V Rs= 0.25
500 Rr=0.2 Lr = Ls = 0.5/
(2*pi*50)
400
Lm=30/(2*pi*50)
f = 50Hz p=4
Torque
300
200 Lower speed slip

higher
100
Low efficiency at low
speed
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
w (rad/s)
H. A. Suud
Constant V/Hz
To maintain V/Hz constant

Approximates constant air-gap flux when Eag is large
+ +
V Eag Eag = k f ag
_ _
E ag V
ag = constant
f f
Speed is adjusted by varying f - maintaining V/f constant to avoid

flux saturation
H. A. Suud
Constant V/Hz
900
800
50Hz
700
30Hz
600
500
Torque
10Hz
400
300
200
100
0
H. A. Suud 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Constant V/Hz
Vs
Vrated
frated
H. A. Suud
Constant V/Hz
Rectifier
3-phase VSI
supply
C IM
f
Ramp Pulse
V Width
s* +
Modulator
H. A. Suud
Problems with open-loop constant V/f
1. At low speed, voltage drop across stator impedance is significant

compared to airgap voltage - poor torque capability at low speed
Solution:
1. Boost voltage at low speed
2. Maintain Im constant constant ag
2. Poor speed regulation
Solution:
1. Compensate slip
2. Closed-loop control
H. A. Suud
Ratings of converters and motors
H. A. Suud
Thermal considerations
Unavoidable power losses causes temperature increase

Insulation used in the windings are classified based on the
temperature it can withstand.
Motors must be operated within the allowable maximum temperature
Sources of power losses (hence temperature increase):
- Conductor heat losses (i2R)

- Core losses hysteresis and eddy current
- Friction losses bearings, brush windage
H. A. Suud
Electrical machines can be overloaded as long their temperature

does not exceed the temperature limit
Accurate prediction of temperature distribution in machines is

complex hetrogeneous materials, complex geometrical shapes
Simplified assuming machine as homogeneous body
Ambient temperature, To
p1 p2
Thermal capacity, C (Ws/oC)
Input heat power

Surface A, (m2) Emitted heat power
Surface temperature, T (oC)
(losses) (convection)
H. A. Suud
Power balance:
dT
C p1 p 2
dt
Heat transfer by convection:
p 2 A(T To ) , where is the coefficient of heat transfer
Which gives:
dT A p
T 1
dt C C
With T(0) = 0 and p1 = ph = constant ,
T
ph
A

1 e t / , where
C
A
H. A. Suud
ph
T A T
ph
A

1 e t /
Heating transient
t

T
T T(0) e t /
T(0)
Cooling transient
H. A. Suud
The duration of overloading depends on the modes of operation:
Continuous duty
Load torque is constant over extended period multiple
Steady state temperature reached
Nominal output power chosen equals or exceeds continuous load
H. A. Suud
Short time intermittent duty

Operation considerably less than time constant,
Motor allowed to cool before next cycle
Motor can be overloaded until maximum temperature reached
H. A. Suud
Short time intermittent duty p1s
p1
p1n
p1n
A
Tmax
t
t
H. A. Suud 1

p1n p1s 1 e t 1 /
Short time intermittent duty p1n p1s

A A

1 e t1 /
T
p1s 1
t1 /

p1n 1 e t1
p1n
T
p1s
A

1 e t /
A
Tmax
t
t1
H. A. Suud
Periodic intermittent duty

Load cycles are repeated periodically
Motors are not allowed to completely cooled
Fluctuations in temperature until steady state temperature is reached
p1
heating coolling
heating coolling
heating coolling
H. A. Suud
Example of a simple case p1 rectangular periodic pattern
pn = 100kW, nominal power

M = 800kg
= 0.92, nominal efficiency
T= 50oC, steady state temperature rise due to pn
1 p1 9000
p1 p n 1 9kW Also, A 180 W / o C
T 50
If we assume motor is solid iron of specific heat cFE=0.48 kWs/kgoC,

thermal capacity C is given by
C = cFE M = 0.48 (800) = 384 kWs/oC
Finally , thermal time constant = 384000/180 = 35 minutes
H. A. Suud
Example of a simple case p1 rectangular periodic pattern
For a duty cycle of 30% (period of 20 mins), heat losses of twice the nominal,
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
4
x 10
H. A. Suud

Note

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Исходное описание:

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Note

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

ECEg4222 Power Electronics

and Electrical Drives

Chapter 1: Introduction to Electrical Drives

Electrical motor (most commonly used)

The main advantage of an electrical motor (EM) is, its

Fig 1: Elements of an Electrical Drive System

Advantage of electrical drive:

Power Electronic Converters Electric Motor

Constant speed Variable Speed Drives

Fixed speed Variable speed

Improvements in energy utilization in electric motors give large

Improves the existing power converterbased drive systems

AC Source DC Source AC Source DC Source

AC-DC- AC-DC- DC-DC-

Const. Variable NCC FCC

J Polar moment ofi nertia of motor load

Now, according to this equation, the speed of a motor

When speed control is required above the rated

How the armature voltage control and field flux

This speed controlling method is better than many

Chapter 2: Power converters to supply

The reversal of current occurs because the reverse

The preferred mode of operation in power circuits is

The device has no reverse voltage blocking

Very simple example but principle works in general.

If we assume diode is always on in P.S.S., then:

The waveform of the output voltage and the switch

Half Bridge DC-AC Inverter with L Load and R-

Similarly, for the RL load; instantaneous load current

Single Phase Bridge DC-AC Inverter with R-L

The equivalent resistance of the circuit shown in

Operation with RL-load:

The expressions for the RMS output phase voltage

Chapter 3: Electrical Drives and Control

Converters for Motor Drives

Configurations of Power Electronic Converters depend on:

Drive Performance - applications

Available AC source to control DC motor (brushed)

D2 conducts va = 0 T1 conducts va = Vdc

T2 conducts va = 0 D1 conducts va = Vdc

Positive current Negative current

Positive current Negative current

150 150 Armature

Vdc -100 -100

Bipolar switching scheme Unipolar switching scheme

Current ripple in unipolar is smaller

The common PWM technique: CB-SPWM with ZSS

Control the torque, speed or position

Cascade control structure

Example of current control in cascade control structure

High bandwidth, simple implementation,

The relation between vc and va is determined by the firing circuit

Results of comparison trigger SCRs

A linear relation between vc and Va

Va is the average voltage over one period of the waveform

Delays depending on when the control signal changes normally taken

Single phase, 50Hz

Three phase, 50Hz

Simplified if control bandwidth is reduced to much lower than the

To control the current current-controlled converter

We want to establish a relation between vc and Va

Introducing perturbation in vc and Va and separating DC and AC components: