Overview of

Temperature
Measurement and
Calibration

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Objectives
 History of Temperature Measurement
 Principle Operation of Temperature
Measurement Devices
 The Construction and Materials used
 Advantages and Disadvantages
 Applications
 Calibration
 Indications of Instrument Failure

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History
 Galileo is credited with Inventing the first
thermometer in 1592.
 In an open container filled with colored
alcohol he suspended a long narrow-throated
glass tube, at the upper end of which there
was a hollow sphere.
 When heated the air in the sphere would
bubble out thru the tube.

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History Continued
 When cooled the air would contract and
water fluid would move up the tube.
 Fluctuations could then be noted by the
position of the liquid in the tube.
 This “upside-down” thermometer was a poor
indicator because fluctuations could be
caused by barometric pressure and there
was no scale.

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History Continued
 Vast improvements where made in the
ensuing years using the Florentine
thermometer which incorporated sealed
construction and a graduated scale.
 Over from the next few decades many
temperature scales where used based on two
or more fixed points.

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History Continued
 One scale was not universally recognized
until the early 1700’s, when Gabriel
Fahrenheit, a Dutch instrument maker,
produced accurate and repeatable mercury
thermometers.
 The low fixed point that he used was a
mixture of Ice and salt (ammonium Chloride).
The lowest temperature he could produce
was 0 Deg F.

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History Continued
 The high fixed point was 96 Deg F, the
temperature of the Human Body.
 Fahrenheit chose 96 Deg because in his
earlier scales he had started with a resolution
of 12 and then later increased his resolution
to 24,48 and then 96.
 His scale increased in popularity because of
the consistent repeatability and quality of
thermometers he built.

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History Continued
 Around 1742 Anders Celsius proposed that
the melting point of ice and the boiling point
of water be the two benchmarks.
 Celsius proposed that 0 Deg C be the boiling
point and that 100 Deg C be the freezing
point. Later the end points where reversed
and the centigrade scale was born.

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History Continued
 In 1948 the name was officially changed to
the celsius scale.
 In the early 1800’s William Thompson (Lord
Kelvin) developed a universal thermodynamic
scale based on the coefficient of an
expansion of an ideal gas.
 Kelvin established the concept of absolute
zero and his scale remains the standard for
modern thermometry.

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Temperature conversions
 Celsius=5/9(F-32)
 Fahrenheit=9/5(C+32)
 Kelvin= C+273.15
 Rankine= F+ 459.67

 Rankine is the Fahrenheit equivalent of the

Kelvin Scale

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Thermocouple
 Theory of Operation
 When two wires of dissimilar metals are joined at both ends
and one end is heated, a continuous current is induced,
which flows in the thermoelectric circuit.
 If this circuit is broken, the net open circuit voltage is a
function of the junction temperature and the composition of
the two metals.
 All dissimilar metals exhibit this effect.
 For small changes in temperature this voltage effect is
linearly proportional to temperature.

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Measuring Thermocouple
Voltage
 We can not directly measure thermocouple
voltage with a voltmeter. When the voltmeter
is attached to the thermocouple, the
voltmeter leads themselves cause a
thermoelectric circuit.
 One way to eliminate this issue is to
implement a reference junction at 0 Deg C so
the we know the voltage created at that point.

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Measuring Thermocouple
Voltage
 Using an Ice Bath at the junction is not a convenient method for
field calibrations, athough it is highly accurate.
 The two most common methods are:
 Software Compensation: Using an RTD measure the

temperature at the junction to compensate for reference voltage

an give an accurate thermocouple voltage.
 Hardware Compensation: Using a battery inside the voltmeter to

electronically compensate for the reference voltage.

 In modern voltmeters software adjustment is generally used. This

is because a separate battery would be required for each type of

thermocouple.

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Converting Thermocouple
Voltage to Temperature
 Conversion of the thermocouple voltage to
temperature is achieved with the software of
the thermocouple reader. Multiple equations
are required depending on the relevant
voltage as the Temperature vs. Voltage curve
is not completely linear. Thermocouple
voltage can also be converted using the
National Bureau of Standards Thermocouple
Tables.

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Materials Used in Thermocouples
 As discussed previously, any two dis-similar metals
joined together will create a thermoelectric effect.
 Common material construction Types are:
 J type-Iron vs. Copper-Nickel
 K type-Nickel Chromium vs. Nickel-Aluminum
 T type-Copper vs. Copper-nickel
 There are many more types of thermocouples used J,K & T
are three of the more frequently seen in Biotech Industries.

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Advantages of Thermocouples

 Self Powered
 Simple
 Rugged
 Inexpensive
 Wide configuration variety
 Wide temperature range

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Disadvantages of thermocouples
 Non-linear
 Low voltage
 Reference required
 Minimal stability
 Minimal sensitivity

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Thermocouple Problems
 Poor Junction Connections
 There are a number of acceptable ways to connect two

thermocouple wires together.

 Soldering- Even though a third metal is introduced to the junction it
will not effect the reading as long as the temperature is consistent on
both sides of the junction. However, solder does limit the temperature
range of the thermocouple. Therefore welding must be used at higher
temperatures.
 Welding- To reach the higher temperature range the connection must
be welded. Welding however can cause damage to the thermocouple
by damaging the wire or causing it to overheat and reacted with the
air thereby creating a different substance with different thermoelectric
properties. Industrial thermocouples are welded under exacting
conditions using expensive equipment thereby minimizing these
effects.

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Thermocouple Problems cont.
 Decalibration
 Decalibration can be caused by the result of the
diffusion of atmospheric particles into the metal at
extreme temperatures.
 It can be caused by high temperature annealing
or by cold working the metal. This effect can be
caused when the wire is drawn through a conduit
or strained through by rough handling or vibration.

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Thermocouple Problems cont.
 These problems can be avoided by careful
handling of the wire. Proper placement and
protective metal sheathing if necessary.

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Thermocouple Problems cont.
 Shunt Impedance- High temperatures can also take
there toll on thermocouple insulation. If a
breakdown in the insulation occurs, a junction could
be created in a place were temperature is not meant
to be measured.
 Galvanic Actions- The dyes that are used in some
insulations can form an electrolyte that can produce
voltages much greater than the normal
thermoelectric effect. Care should be taken to
ensure that the insulation is not subject to chemical
contamination.

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Thermocouple Applications
 Thermocouples are used in a variety of
different Biotech applications.
 Lyophilizers- Due to broad operating temperature
range.
 Ultra Low Temperature Freezers-Due to broad
operating temperature range
 Validation Test Equipment- Small size allows
easy placement.

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Resistance Temperature
Detector
 Resistance temperature elements are available in
many different types, conforming to different
standards, and capable of different temperature
ranges with various sizes and accuracies.
 All Resistance temperature elements operate in the
same manner with a given resistance value for a
specific temperature.

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Resistance Temperature
Detector cont.
 The resistance temperature elements are the heart
of the Resistance Temperature Detector. Generally
a bare resistance element is to fragile and sensitive
to be used in its raw form therefore in must be
placed in a protective casing.
 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)- Is a
general term for a temperature measuring device
that consists of a temperature element, a sheath,
lead wire and a termination or connection.

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Resistance Temperature
Detector cont.
 The Sheath, a closed end tube, immobilizes the
element, protecting it against moisture and the
environment which it measures
 The sheath also provides protection and stability
to the transition lead wires from the sensing
element.

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Resistance Temperature
Detector cont.
 Some RTD’s may also be enclosed in thermo
wells that protect the RTD but also keep the
system closed. (ie. A tank or boiler)
 This becomes of great importance when
removing an RTD for replacement or
calibration.

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Resistance Element
Characteristics
 Material of Resistance Element
 Several types of metal are common in resistance
elements.
 Platinum- Most common due to its linearity with
temperature.
 Nickel & Copper- although most are being replaced by
platinum
 Balco- an Iron-Nickel Alloy (very rare)
 Tungsten and Iridium- Also very rare

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Resistance Element
Characteristics
 Temperature Coefficient
 The temperature coefficient is a physical and electrical
property of the material.
 This changes the average resistance change per unit of
temperature from the 0 to 100 Deg C.
 Different Organizations have developed different
temperature coefficients as there standards.
 In 1983 the International Electrotechnical Commission
developed the standard of a Platinum Element 100 Ohm at
0 Deg C with a 0.385 Ohm change per Deg C.
 This is now the most widely used and accepted standard.

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Resistance Element
Characteristics
 This standard is derived by taking the resistance
at 100 Deg C 138.50 Ohms and subtracting 0 Deg
C 100.00 ohms and dividing by 100 temperature
units.
 Even though the coefficient is 0.385 Ohms/Deg. It
does not assume that the slope is perfectly linear.
 Some Other Less common standards are
 .390 US Industrial Standard
 .392 Old US Industrial Standard

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Resistance Element
Characteristics
 Nominal Resistance
 Most standards use 0 Deg C and 100 Ohms.
 However, there are others that use 50, 200, 400,
500, 1000 and 2000 Ohm.

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Resistance Element
Characteristics
 Temperature Range of Application
 Depending on the mechanical configuration,
construction and manufacturing, RTD’s maybe
used from-270 to 850 Deg C.

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Resistance Element
Characteristics
 Physical Dimensions or Size Restrictions
 The most critical dimension is the Outer Diameter
which must be small enough to fit into a an outer
sheath.

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Resistance Element
Characteristics
 Accuracy
 RTE’s have two standard accuracies Class A and
Class B. With Class A having a tighter tolerance.

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Pt 100 tolerances
Limiting Deviations

Classification A Classification B

Temperature ºC ºC Ohm ºC Ohm

-200 ±0.55 ±0.24 ±1.3 ±0.56

-100 ±0.35 ±0.14 ±0.8 ±0.32

0 ±0.15 ±0.06 ±0.3 ±0.12

100 ±0.35 ±0.13 ±0.08 ±0.30

200 ±0.55 ±0.20 ±1.3 ±0.48

300 ±0.75 ±0.27 ±1.8 ±0.64

400 ±0.95 ±0.33 ±2.3 ±0.79

500 ±1.15 ±0.38 ±2.8 ±0.93

600 ±1.35 ±0.43 ±3.3 ±1.06

650 - - ±3.6 ±1.13

700 - - ±3.8 ±1.17

800 - - ±4.3 ±1.28

850 - - ±4.6 ±1.34

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Resistance Element
Characteristics
 Response Time
 These times are based on the time it takes to
reach a given value in a steady stream of flowing
water or air.

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Resistance Element
Characteristics
 Measurement Current and Self Heating
 Since there is a electrical current flowing through
the element this causes heat. There is a
temperature error that is created by this.

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Lead Wire Configurations
 2 Wire RTD
 A two wire RTD is inherently inaccurate due to the
fact that the two lead wires resistances are added.
 R1 + R2 + Re =Rt
 This will produce a temperature readout that is
higher than the measured value.

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Lead Wire Configurations
 3 Wire RTD
 The 3 wire RTD is the most commonly used.
 It provides a way to compensate for lead resistance.
 It provides one connection to one side of the element and
two to the other.
 The 3 wires that are used have identical resistances.
 R1=R2=R3
 If the resistance is measured though R1 +Re + R2 then the
Resistance measured through R2 + R3 is subtracted. Thus,
we are left with only the value of Re.

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Lead Wire Configurations
 4 Wire configuration
 Two connections are provided to both sides of the element.
 This configuration is used for the most accurate readings
requiring the most precision.
 A constant current is passed through the outer wires 1 & 4.
 A voltage drop is measured across the inner leads. So from
V=IR we learn the resistance of element from the element
alone.

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RTD Advantages
 very stable
 higher accuracy than thermocouples
 better linearity than thermocouples

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RTD disadvantages
 higher cost
 power supply is required
 low resistance value
 self-heating effect

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ITS-90
 Although temperature was one of the first variables
to be measured in industry the first formal
international temperature scale was not adopted
until 1927. The scale started at -200°C and went
beyond the freezing point of gold (1063°C) and was
based on fixed points such as the boiling point of
oxygen and sulfur. Today, the internationally
recognized temperature scale is referred to as
ITS90 and is defined by the following table:-

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ITS-90 Points
Temperature deg C Substance State

-270.15 to -268.15 Helium Vapor pressure point

-259.3467 Hydrogen Triple Point

~-256.15 Hydrogen at 10192 Pa Vapor pressure point

-252.85 Hydrogen at 33321.3 Pa Vapor pressure point

-248.5939 Neon Triple Point

-218.7916 Oxygen Triple Point

-189.3442 Argon Triple Point

-38.8344 Mercury Triple Point

0.01 Water Triple Point

29.7646 Gallium Melting Point

156.5985 Indium Freezing Point

231.928 Tin Freezing Point

419.527 Zinc Freezing Point

660.323 Aluminum Freezing Point

961.78 Silver Freezing Point

1064.18 Gold Freezing Point

1084.62 Copper Freezing Point

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Non Contact temperature
Measurement
 These devices are particularly useful for measuring temperatures
of moving objects or rotating surfaces where contact is not
possible or is undesirable.
 Radiation pyrometers measure the temperature of an object by
measuring the amount of radiation that the object emits. All
objects emit radiant energy but the intensity and wavelength of
this energy depends on the object’s temperature and its
emissivity (its ability to send out radiant energy). The wavelength
of this radiant energy is from the visible light area, 0.35 to 0.75
microns, to the infrared area of 0.75 to 20 microns.

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Non Contact temperature
Measurement
 Therefore some hot objects will emit visible radiation e.g. red-hot
steel, tungsten filament etc., but there is much more radiation
emitted in the infrared area of the spectrum. The emissivity of an
object is measured relative to a perfect emitter or a blackbody,
which is an object that absorbs all heat to which it is exposed
and emits that heat as radiant energy.

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Advantages
 non-contact temperature measurement
 wide temperature range 20 to 3500ºC
 fast response
 adjustable for long term drift

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Disadvantages
 expensive
 bulky
 needs to be adjusted for precise emissivity

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Thermistors
 Thermistors, derived from Thermally
sensitive resistors, are solid state devices
that exhibit a high coefficient of resistivity.
They are used to measure temperature
typically in the range 50 to 200ºC, as well as
being incorporated into electrical circuits as
protection and compensation devices.

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Thermistors
 Thermistors are manufactured from complex
metal oxides such as cobalt, magnesium,
manganese or nickel.

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Thermistors
 There are two types of Thermistor; an NTC
(negative temperature coefficient), whose resistance
changes inversely with temperature, and a PTC
(positive temperature coefficient) whose resistance
changes proportionally to temperature. There are no
industry standard Thermistors consequently each
manufacturer produces devices with unique
characteristics in various formats such as bead,
disc, washer or chip.

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Thermistors
 Because of the limited temperature range of
Thermistor devices, the temperature probes
are predominantly used in applications such
as HVAC and refrigeration where they are
connected directly to the measurement or
control instruments or panel meters.

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Thermistor Advantages
 cost effective in volume
 stable
 better accuracy than thermocouples

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Thermistor Disadvantages
 linear only over a limited temperature range
 no industry standard
 Not always interchangeable

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