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Figure 17.4 (a) A gaseous solute in equilibrium with a solution. (b) The
piston is pushed in and causes an increase in the rate at which the gas
enters the solution, so the concentration of dissolved gas increases. (c) The
greater gas concentration in the solution causes an increase in the rate of
escape. A new equilibrium is reached.
Zumdahl/Decoste | Chemical Principles, 8e, 2017 Cengage Learning
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17.3 Factors Affecting Solubility
Figure 17.5
The solubilities of several solids
as a function of temperature.
Note that although most
substances become more soluble
in water with increasing
temperature, sodium sulfate and
cerium sulfate become less
soluble.
Zumdahl/Decoste | Chemical Principles, 8e, 2017 Cengage Learning
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17.3 Factors Affecting Solubility
Temperature Effects for Aqueous Solutions
Figure 17.6
The solubilities of several gases in
water as a function of
temperature at a constant
pressure of 1 atm of gas above
the solution.
Zumdahl/Decoste | Chemical Principles, 8e, 2017 Cengage Learning
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17.3 Factors Affecting Solubility
The decreasing water solubility of gases with increased tem
perature is also responsible for the formation of boiler scal
e. The bicarbonate ion is formed when carbon dioxide is dis
solved in water containing the carbonate ion:
When the water also contains Ca2+ soluble in water, but calci
um carbonate is insoluble. When the water is heated, the ca
rbon dioxide is driven off. For the system to replace the lost
carbon dioxide, the reverse reaction must occur:
Figure 17.7
A pipe with accumulated mineral
26 deposits. Zumdahl/Decoste | Chemical Principles, 8e, 2017 Cengage Learning
17.4 The Vapor Pressures of Solutions
Figure 17.9
The presence of a nonvolatile solute inhibits the escape of
solvent molecules from the liquid and so lowers the vapor
pressure
28 of the solvent. Zumdahl/Decoste | Chemical Principles, 8e, 2017 Cengage Learning
17.4 The Vapor Pressures of Solutions
Figure 17.10
For a solution that obeys Raoults law,
a plot of Psoln versus Xsolvent yields a
straight line.
Zumdahl/Decoste | Chemical Principles, 8e, 2017 Cengage Learning
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17.4 The Vapor Pressures of Solutions
Nonideal Solutions
for liquidliquid solutions where both components are volat
ile, a modified form of Raoults law applies:
Figure 17.11 Vapor pressure for a solution of two volatile liquids. (a) The
behavior predicted for an ideal liquidliquid solution by Raoults law. (b) A
solution for which PTotal is larger than the value calculated from Raoults law.
This solution shows a positive deviation from Raoults law. (c) A solution for
which PTotal is smaller than the value calculated from Raoults law. This
solution shows a negative deviation from Raoults law.
Zumdahl/Decoste | Chemical Principles, 8e, 2017 Cengage Learning
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17.4 The Vapor Pressures of Solutions
Large negative heats of solution indicate especially strong s
olutesolvent interactions, and such solutions are expected
to show negative deviations from Raoults law. Both compo
nents have a lower escaping tendency in the solution than i
n the pure liquids.
This behavior is illustrated by an acetonewater solution wh
ere the molecules can hydrogen-bond effectively:
Figure 17.12 Phase diagrams for pure water (red lines) and for
an aqueous solution containing a nonvolatile solute (blue lines).
Note that the boiling point of the solution is higher than that of
pure water. Conversely, the freezing point of the solution is lower
than
37 that of pure water. Zumdahl/Decoste | Chemical Principles, 8e, 2017 Cengage Learning
17.5 Boiling-Point Elevation and
Freezing-Point Depression
Figure 17.13
(a) Ice in equilibrium with liquid water. (b) Ice in equilibrium
with liquid water containing a dissolved solute (shown in
pink).
Zumdahl/Decoste | Chemical Principles, 8e, 2017 Cengage Learning
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17.6 Osmotic Pressure
Osmotic Pressure
A solution and pure solvent are separated by a semiperme
able membrane, which allows solvent but not solute molec
ules to pass through. As time passes, the volume of the solu
tion increases, whereas that of the solvent decreases. This fl
ow of solvent into the solution through the semipermeable
membrane is called osmosis.
Eventually the liquid levels stop changing, indicating that th
e system has reached equilibrium. Because the liquid levels
are different at this point, there is a greater hydrostatic pres
sure on the solution than on the pure solvent. This excess p
ressure is called the osmotic pressure.
Figure 17.14
A tube with a bulb on the end is covered by a semipermeable
membrane. The solution inside the tube is bathed in the pure
solvent. There is a net transfer of solvent molecules into the
solution until the hydrostatic pressure equalizes the solvent flow
in both directions.
Zumdahl/Decoste | Chemical Principles, 8e, 2017 Cengage Learning
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17.6 Osmotic Pressure
Figure 17.15
The normal flow of solvent into
the solution (osmosis) can be
prevented by applying an
external pressure to the solution.
The minimum pressure required
to stop the osmosis is equal to
43 the osmotic
Zumdahl/Decoste |pressure
Chemical Principles, of the
8e, 2017 Cengage Learning
solution.
17.6 Osmotic Pressure
Figure 17.18
Reverse osmosis. A pressure
greater
than the osmotic pressure of the
solution is applied, which causes a
net flow of solvent molecules (blue)
from the solution to the pure
solvent. The solute molecules
(green) remain behind.
Zumdahl/Decoste | Chemical Principles, 8e, 2017 Cengage Learning
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17.6 Osmotic Pressure
Reverse Osmotic
Figure 17.20
A desalination plant that
can supply 132,000
gallons of drinkable
water per day, one-third
of the islands daily
needs.
Zumdahl/Decoste | Chemical Principles, 8e, 2017 Cengage Learning
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17.7 Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Soluti
ons
Electrolyte Solutions
Figure 17.21
In an aqueous solution, a few ions aggregate, forming ion
pairs that behave as a unit.
Figure 17.22
The Tyndall effect. The solution on the left does not show the path
of the light beam, whereas the suspension on the right clearly
shows
51 the light path. Zumdahl/Decoste | Chemical Principles, 8e, 2017 Cengage Learning
17.8 Colloids
Figure 17.23
A representation of two colloidal particles. In each the center
particle is surrounded by a layer of positive ions, with negative
ions in the outer layer. Thus, although the particles are
electrically
neutral, they still repel each other because of their outer
negative Zumdahl/Decoste | Chemical Principles, 8e, 2017 Cengage Learning
layer of ions.
17.8 Colloids
The destruction of a colloid, called coagulation, can usually
be accomplished either by heating or by adding an electroly
te.
Heating increases the velocities of the colloidal particles, ca
using them to collide with enough energy so that the ion ba
rriers are penetrated. This allows the particles to aggregate.
Adding an electrolyte neutralizes the adsorbed ion layers. T
he high salt content of the seawater causes the colloidal cla
y particles to coagulate.
The removal of soot from smoke is another example of the
coagulation of a colloid. When smoke is passed through an
electrostatic precipitator, the suspended solids are remove
d. Zumdahl/Decoste | Chemical Principles, 8e, 2017 Cengage Learning
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17.8 Colloids
Figure 17.24
The Cottrell precipitator installed
in a smokestack. The charged
plates attract the colloidal
particles because of their ion
layers and thus remove them
from the smoke.
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