Series

and
Shunt
Compensation
 Series Compensation
Series compensation is basically a powerful tool
to improve the performance of EHV lines. It
consists of capacitors connected in series with
the line at suitable locations.
 Advantages of Series Compensation
1. Increase in transmission capacity
The power transfer capacity of a line is given by
E.V
P sin
X

where, E is sending end voltage

V is receiving end voltage
X is reactance of line
is phase angle between E and V
 Power transfer without and with compensation:
E.V
P1 sin
XL
E.V
P2 sin
(X L XC )
P2 XL 1 1

P1 ( X L X C ) (1 X C / X L ) 1 K

where K is degree of compensation.

The economic degree of compensation lies in the range of 40-70%
(K < 1, i.e. 0.4-0.7)
2. Improvement of System Stability
For same amount of power transfer and same value of E
and V, the in the case of series compensated line is less
than that of uncompensated line.
E.V
P sin 1
XL
E.V
P sin 2
(X L XC )
sin 2 ( X L X C )

sin 1 XL
A lower means better system stability
Series compensation offers most economic solution for system
stability as compared to other methods (reducing generator, x-mer
reactance, bundled conductors, increase no. of parallel circuits
3. Load Division between Parallel Circuits

When a system is to be strengthen by the addition of

a new line or when one of the existing circuit is to be
adjusted for parallel operation in order to achieve
maximum power transfer or minimize losses, series
compensation can be used.
It is observed in Sweden that the cost of the series
compensation in the 420 kV system was entirely
recovered due to decrease in losses in the 220 kV
system operating in parallel with the 420 kV system.
 4. Less installation Time
The installation time of the series capacitor is
smaller (2 years approx.) as compared to
installation time of the parallel circuit line (5
years approx.)
This reduces the risk factor.
Hence used to hit the current thermal limit.
The life of x-mission line and capacitor is
generally 20-25 years.
 Disadvantages
1. Increase in fault current
2. Mal operation of distance relay- if the degree
of compensation and location is not proper.
3. High recovery voltage of lines- across the
circuit breaker contacts and is harmful.
 4. Problems of Ferro-resonance
When a unloaded or lightly loaded transformer is energized
through a series compensated line, Ferro-resonance may
occur.
It is produced due to resonance occurred in between the
iron-created inductance (i.e., due to iron parts in the
transformer) and in the reactance of the compensated line.
This will cause a flow of high current.
It rarely happens and may be suppressed by using shunt
resistors across the capacitors or by short circuiting the
capacitor temporarily through an isolator or by-pass breaker.
 5. Problems due to sub-synchronous
resonance
The series capacitors introduces a sub-
synchronous frequency (proportional to the
square-root of the compensation) in the system.
In some case this frequency may interact with
weak steam turbine generator shaft and give rise
to high torsional stress.
In hydro-turbine generators, the risk of sub-
synchronous resonance is small because the
torsional frequency is about 10 Hz or even less.
 Sub-Synchronous Resonance
We know that, with the series compensation
used, the power handling capacity of line is
E.V
P sin
X
X ( X L X C ) X L (1 K )

where, K = XC/XL is degree of compensation

and reactances are at power frequency f0
Sub-Synchronous Resonance (continued )
XC = K. XL
1/ C = K L (1)

As at certain resonant frequency (fr) it is possible that

1
X Cfr ; X Lfr 2f r L
2f r C
1
2f r L
2f r C
1
fr
2 LC
Replacing LC = 1/K(2f)2 from (1)
K (2f ) 2 As K is 0.4-0.7; fr < f
fr f K
2 Hence called sub-synchronous
frequency
 Location of Series Capacitor
The choice of the location of the series
capacitor depends on many technical and
economical consideration.
In each case, a special system study
concerning load flow, stability, transient
overvoltage, protection requirements, system
voltage profile etc. is necessary before the
optimal location is chosen.
 1. Location along the line
In this method the capacitor bank is located at
the middle of the line (if one bank) or at 1/3 rd
distance along the line (if two banks).
This has advantage of better voltage profile
along the line, lesser short circuit current
through the capacitor in the event of fault and
simpler protection of capacitor.
The capacitor stations are generally unattended.
 2. Location at one or both ends of line
section on the line side in the switching
station
The main advantage of this location is that the
capacitor installation is near the manned sub-
stations.
However, requires more advanced line
protection.
For the same degree of compensation, more
MVAr capacity is needed as compared to
method 1.

3. Location within bus bars within Switching Stations

 Shunt Compensation
For high voltage transmission line the line
capacitance is high and plays a significant role
in voltage conditions of the receiving end.
When the line is loaded then the reactive power
demand of the load is partially met by the
reactive power generated by the line capacitance
and the remaining reactive power demand is met
by the reactive power flow through the line
from sending end to the receiving end.
Shunt Compensation (continued)
When load is high (more than SIL) then a large
reactive power flows from sending end to the
receiving end resulting in large voltage drop in the
line.
To improve the voltage at the receiving end shunt
capacitors may be connected at the receiving end to
generate and feed the reactive power to the load so
that reactive power flow through the line and
consequently the voltage drop in the line is reduced.
Shunt Compensation (continued)
To control the receiving end voltage a bank of
capacitors (large number of capacitors
connected in parallel) is installed at the
receiving end and suitable number of capacitors
are switched in during high load condition
depending upon the load demand.
Thus the capacitors provide leading VAr to
partially meet reactive power demand of the
load to control the voltage.
Shunt Compensation (continued)
If XC = 1/C be the reactance of the shunt
capacitor then the reactive power generated of
leading VAr supplied by the capacitor:
2
V2 2
QC V2 C
XC

where, |V2| is the magnitude of receiving end

voltage.
Shunt Compensation (continued)
When load is small (less than SIL) then the load reactive
power demand may even be lesser than the reactive power
generated by the line capacitor. Under these conditions the
reactive power flow through the line becomes negative,
i.e., the reactive power flows from receiving end to
sending end, and the receiving end voltage is higher than
sending end voltage (Ferranti effect).
To control the voltage at the receiving end it is necessary
to absorb or sink reactive power. This is achieved by
connecting shunt reactors at the receiving end.
Shunt Compensation (continued)
If XL = L be the reactance of the shunt reactor
(inductor) then the reactive VAr absorbed by
the shunt rector:
2
V2 2
QL V2 / L
XL

where, |V2| is the magnitude of receiving end

voltage.
Shunt Compensation (continued)
To control the receiving end voltage generally
one shunt rector is installed and switched in
during the light load condition.
To meet the variable reactive power demands
requisite number of shunt capacitors are
switched in, in addition to the shunt reactor,
which results in adjustable reactive power
absorption by the combination.
 Degree of series compensation
We know that the surge impedance

L jL
ZC xxL
C j C

Suppose Cse is the series capacitance per unit length for series compensation. Therefore
total series reactance will be
j j jL
jL' jL jL .
C se C se jL
1 X

jL 1 2 jL 1 cse jL1 se
LC se XL
where se is known as degree of series compensation. Therefore, virtual surge impedance
jL(1 se )
Z C' Z C (1 se )
j C
 Degree of shunt compensation
We know that the surge impedance
L j L
ZC xL xL
C j C

Suppose shunt inductance Lsh per unit length is used for shunt compensation. Therefore
the net shunt susceptance will be
1 j C
j C ' j C j C .
jLsh Lsh C
1 X
jC 1 2 jC 1 c jC 1 sh
CLsh X Lsh
where sh is known as degree of shunt compensation. Therefore, virtual surge impedance
jL ZC
Z
'
C
jC (1 sh ) (1 sh )
 Considering both series and shunt compensation
simultaneously:

j L ' 1 se
Z C' Zc
j C ' 1 sh

Therefore, the virtual surge impedance loading

1 sh
P Pc
C
'

1 se
It is clear that a fixed degree of series compensation and
capacitive shunt compensation decreases the virtual surge
impedance of line.
However, inductive shunt compensation increases the virtual
surge impedance and decreases the virtual surge impedance
loading of line. If inductive shunt comp. is 100%, the virtual
surge impedance becomes infinite and loading zero.
 Suppose, we want flat voltage profile corresponding to 1.2 PC
without series compensation, the shunt capacitance
compensation required will be:
PC' Pc / 1 se
1.2 PC PC / 1 se
se 0.306 pu
Now, assuming shunt compensation to be zero, the series
compensation required corresponding to 1.2 PC :
PC' Pc 1 sh
1.2 PC PC 1 sh
sh 0.44 pu

However, because of lumped nature of series capacitor,

voltage control using series capacitors is not recommended.
Normally used for improving stability limits of the system.
 Active Compensation
Synchronous condensers are the active shunt
compensators and have been used to improve the
voltage profile and system stability.
When machine is overexcited, it acts as shunt
capacitor as it supplies lagging VAr to the system and
when under excited it acts as a shunt coil as it absorbs
reactive power to maintain terminal voltage.
The synchronous condenser provides continuous (step
less) adjustment of the reactive power in both under
excited and overexcited mode.
Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS)

Using high speed thyristors for switching in or out

transmission line components such as capacitors,
reactors or phase shifting transformer for desirable
performance of the systems.
Power transfer between two systems interconnected
through a tie-line is given as E.V
P sin
X
The FACTS devices can be used to control one or
more of voltages at the two ends, the reactance of the
tie-line and the difference of the voltage angles at the
two ends.
 FACTS Devices
The various devices used are
Static VAr compensator (SVC)
Static Condensors (STATCON)
Advanced Thyristor Controlled Series
Compensation (ATCSC)
Thyristor Controlled Phase Shifting Transformer
 Active Compensation using SVC
Static VAr Compensators (without rotating part)
An static VAr system consists of two elements in parallel (a
rector and a bank of capacitors).
Used for surge impedance compensation and for
compensation by sectioning a long transmission line.
Also for load compensation to maintain constant voltage for
Slow variation of Load
Load rejection, outage of generator/line
Under rapid variation of Load
Improves system pf and stability.
Static VAr Compensators (continued)
An ideal static reactive power compensator must be
capable of step-less adjustment of reactive power
over an unlimited range (lagging and leading) without
any time delay.
Some important compensators used in transmission
and distribution networks are:
Thyristor controlled reactor (TCR)
Thyristor switched capacitor (TSC)
Saturated rectors (SR)
Common feature in Static compensators

A fixed capacitor in parallel with controlled

susceptance. The fixed capacitors are usually
tuned with small reactors to harmonic
frequencies to absorb harmonics generated by
controlled susceptance.
 Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR)

The controlled element is the reactor

and the controlling element is the
thyristor controller consisting of two
opposite poled thyristors which
conduct every half cycle of the
supply frequency.
Currently available thyristors can
block voltage upto 4000-9000 V and
conduct current upto 3000-6000 A.
Practically 10-20 thyristors are
connected in series to meet the
required blocking voltage .
 The current in the reactor can be controlled by the
method of firing delay angle control. The closure of
the thyristor valve is delayed wrt the peak of the
applied voltage in each half-cycle. Let the firing
delay angle is , applied voltage is v.
v(t ) Vm cos t
Vm
iL (t ) sin t sin
L
The amplitude ILF() of the fundamental reactor
current iLF() can be expressed as:

Vm 2 1
I LF ( ) 1 sin 2
L
 The admittance as a function of angle , can
be written directly from the current equation.
1 2 1
BL ( ) 1 sin 2
L
Evidently, the admittance BL() varies with
in the same manner as the fundamental current
ILF().
If the switching is restricted to a fixed delay
angle, usually =0, then it becomes thyristor-
switched reactor (TSR). The TSR provides
fixed inductive admittance.
 As the SCRs are fired then the distortion in the
sine-wave is observed with the production of odd-
harmonics.
Arranging the TCR and coupling Xmer secondary
in delta cancels the third harmonics and its multiple.
But 5th, 7th, harmonics are still present.
Small reactors are usually included in the fixed
capacitor branches, which tunes with these branches
as filters for 5th and 7th harmonics.
Operating V-I area of the TCR (a) and of the
TSR (b).
 Thyristor Switched Capacitors (TSC)
In this scheme TSCs are used with
TCRs.
The TCRs and capacitance changed
in discrete steps. The susceptance is
adjusted by controlling the no. of
parallel capacitors.
The capacitors serve as filters for
harmonics when only the reactor is
switched.
Advantage: Dynamic stability is
better
Disadvantages: more no. of SCRs,
more cost
Basic TSC (a) and associated
waveforms (b)
 Normally a relatively small surge current limiting reactor is
used in series with the TSC branch. This is needed
primarily to limit the surge current in the thyristor valve
under abnormal condition (switching at wrong time).
Transient free switching:
switching in
Case 1: vC <= V
at vC =v or vsw = 0 (dv/dt should be 0) and
Case 2: vC > V
= 0 and vsw = min.
switching out at i = 0.
Transient free switching
Transient free switching of TSC with
different residual voltages
Operating V-I area of single TSC
 TCR-FC
The TCR-FC system provides continuously
controllable lagging to leading VArs through thyristor
control of reactor current.
Leading VArs are supplied by two or more fixed
capacitor banks. The TCR is generally rated larger
than the total of fixed capacitance so that net lagging
VArs can also be supplied.
The variation of current through the reactor is
obtained by phase angle control of back to back pair
of thyristors connected in series with the reactor.
 Basic TCR-FC and
its VAr demand vs VAr output characteristics
Operating V-I area of TCR-FC
 TSC-TCR

Basic TSC-TCR type static var generator and its VAr demand vs VAr output
characteristic.
Operating V-I area of the TSC-TCR type VAr generator with two thyristor-switched
capacitor banks
 Mechanically Switched Capacitors (MSC)

In this scheme MSCs are also

used with TCRs.
Uses conventional mechanical
or SF6 switches instead of
thyristors to switch the
capacitors.
More economical when there
are a large no. of capacitors to
be switched than using TSCs.
This method is suitable for
The speed of switching is
steady load conditions, where
however longer and this may
the reactive power
affect transient stability.
requirements are predictable
 Saturated Reactors (SR) Scheme
In some schemes for compensation saturated
reactors are used.
Three-phase saturated reactor having a short
circuited delta winding which eliminates third
harmonic currents from the primary.
Fixed capacitors are provided as usual.
A slope-correction capacitor is usually connected
in series with the saturated reactor to alter the B-
H characteristics and hence the reactance.
 A three-phase saturated reactor having a short
circuited delta winding which eliminates third
harmonic currents from the primary winding.
The SR compensator is maintenance free, it has
no control flexibility and it may require costly
damping circuits to avoid any possibility of sub
harmonic instability.
Has the overload capability which is useful in
limiting overvoltage.
 Static Condenser (STATCON)
or Static Compensator (STATCOM)
STATCON is a GTO (Gate Turn off) based compensation system.

The basic elements of a Voltage

Source Inverter (VSI) based
STATCON are an inverter, a DC
capacitor and a transformer to
match the line voltage
When inverter fundamental
output voltage is higher than the
system line voltage the
STATCON works as a capacitor
and reactive VAr is generated.
However, when the inverter
voltage is lower than the system
line voltage, the STATCON acts
as an inductor thereby absorbing
the reactive VArs from the
system.
For purely reactive power flow, the three-phase induced
electromotive forces (EMFs), ea, eb and ec of the synchronous
rotating machine are in phase with the system voltages, va, vb,
and vc. The reactive current I drawn by the synchronous
compensator is determined by the magnitude of the system
voltage V, that of the internal voltage E, and the total circuit
reactance (synchronous machine reactance plus transformer
leakage reactance plus system short circuit reactance) X:
V E
I
X
E
1
Q V V2
X
By controlling the excitation of the machine, and hence the
amplitude E of its internal voltage relative to the amplitude V
of the system voltage, the reactive power flow can be
controlled.
 From a DC input voltage source, provided by the charged capacitor CS, the
converter produces a set of controllable three-phase output voltages with
the frequency of the ac power system. Each output voltage is in phase
with, and coupled to the corresponding ac system voltage via a relatively
small (0.1-0.15 p.u.) tie reactance (which in practice is provided by the per
phase leakage inductance of the coupling transformer).
By varying the amplitude of the output voltages produced, the reactive
power exchange between the converter and the ac system can be
controlled in a manner similar to that of the rotating synchronous machine.
That is, if the amplitude of the output voltage is increased above that of
the ac system voltage, then the current flows through the tie reactance
from the converter to the ac system, and the converter generates reactive
(capacitive) power for the ac system.
If the amplitude of the output voltage is decreased below that of the ac
system, then the reactive current flows from the ac system to the
converter, and the converter absorbs reactive (inductive) power. If the
amplitude of the output voltage is equal to that of the ac system voltage,
the reactive power exchange is zero.
Hence, also known as Static Synchronous Generator (SSG).
 The main difference between the SVC and STATCON is that in case
of SVC the current injected into the system depends upon the system
voltage, but in case of STATCON it is independent of system voltage.
STATCON generate or absorb reactive power without the use of
capacitor or reactors.
The STATCON current I is made perpendicular to the system voltage
V. The STATCON coordinators adjust the phase of I so that it leads or
lags wrt to V.

Advantages:
The steady state load ability of the line is improved.
The voltage rises due to capacitor switching is substantially reduced
both in magnitude and duration.
Voltage variation due to customers loading is reduced.

STATCON is more expensive than switched capacitors or static VAr

compensation on a per unit steady-state MVA basis, however, the
performance of the STATCON outweights the increase in cost.
 GTO Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor
(GCSC)

It consists of a fixed
capacitor in parallel with
a GTO thyristor (or
equivalent) valve (or
switch) that has the
capability to turn on and
off upon command.

Fig. (a) Basic GTO-Controlled Series Capacitor, (b) principle of

turn-off delay angle control, and (c) attainable compensating
voltage waveform
 The objective of the GCSC scheme is to control the ac voltage vc across the capacitor
at a given line current i. Evidently, when the GTO valve, sw, is closed, the voltage
across the capacitor is zero, and when the valve is open, it is maximum. For
controlling the capacitor voltage, the closing and opening of the valve is carried out
in each half-cycle in synchronism with the ac system frequency.
The GTO valve is stipulated to close (through appropriate control action)
whenever the capacitor voltage crosses zero. (Recall that the thyristor valve of the
TCR opens whenever the current crosses zero.)
When the valve sw is opened at the crest of the (constant) line current ( = 0),
the resultant capacitor voltage vc will be the same as that obtained in steady
state with a permanently open switch. When the opening of the valve is delayed
by the angle with respect to the crest of the line current, the capacitor voltage
can be expressed with a defined line current, i(t) = I cos t, as follows:
1 t 1
vC (t ) i (t )dt sin t sin
C C
The amplitude of fundamental capacitor voltage can be expressed as a function
of I 2 1
VCF ( ) (1 sin 2 )
C
where is the amplitude of the line current, C is the capacitance of the GTO
thyristor controlled capacitor, and is the angular frequency of the ac system.
Fundamental component of the series capacitor voltage vs. the turn-off delay angle .
 1 2 1
This impedance can be written as X C ( ) (1 sin 2 )
C

In a practical application the GCSC can be operated either to control the

compensating voltage, VCF(), or the compensating reactance, XC(). In the
voltage compensation mode, the GCSC is to maintain the rated compensating
voltage in face of decreasing line current over a defined interval Imin<= I <=Imax
as illustrated in Figure (a1).
In this compensation mode the capacitive reactance XC, is selected so as to
produce the rated compensating voltage with I= Imin, i.e., VCmax = XC Imin. As
current Imin is increased toward Imax, the turn-off delay angle is increased to
reduce the duration of the capacitor injection and thereby maintain the
compensating voltage with increasing line current.
 In the impedance compensation mode, the GCSC
is to maintain the maximum rated compensating
reactance at any line current up to the rated
maximum. In this compensation mode the capacitive
impedance is chosen so as to provide the maximum
series compensation at rated current, XC = Vcmax/Imax,
that the GCSC can vary in the 0 <= XC() <= XC
range by controlling the effective capacitor voltage
VCF(), i.e.,
XC() = VCF()/I.
Thyristor-Switched Series Capacitor
(TSSC)
The operating principle: the degree of series
compensation is controlled in a step-like manner by
increasing or decreasing the number of series
capacitors inserted. A capacitor is inserted by turning
off, and it is bypassed by turning on the corresponding
thyristor valve.
A thyristor valve commutates "naturally," that is, it
turns off when the current crosses zero. Thus a
capacitor can be inserted into the line by the thyristor
valve only at the zero crossings of the line current.
 Since the insertion takes place at line current zero, a full half-cycle
of the line current will charge the capacitor from zero to
maximum and the successive, opposite polarity half-cycle of the line
current will discharge it from this maximum to zero.
As can be seen, the capacitor insertion at line current zero,
necessitated by the switching limitation of the thyristor valve,
results in a dc offset voltage which is equal to the amplitude of the
ac capacitor voltage. In order to minimize the initial surge current
in the valve, and the corresponding circuit transient, the thyristor
valve should be turned on for bypass only when the capacitor
voltage is zero. With the prevailing dc offset, this requirement can
cause a delay of up to one full cycle, which would set the
theoretical limit for the attainable response time of the TSSC.
 Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor
(TCSC)
It consists of the series compensating
capacitor shunted by a TCR. In a practical
TCSC implementation, several such basic
compensators may be connected in series to
obtain the desired voltage rating and operating
characteristics. This arrangement is similar in
structure to the TSSC and, if the impedance of
the reactor, X1, is sufficiently smaller than that
of the capacitor, XC, it can be operated in an X C X L ( )
X TCSC ( )
on/off manner like the TSSC. However, the X L ( ) X C
basic idea behind the TCSC scheme is to
X L ( ) X L
provide a continuously variable capacitor by 2 sin
means of partially canceling the effective
compensating capacitance by the TCR.
 Thyristor-Controlled Phase Shifting
Transformer (TCPST)
In general, phase shifting is obtained by
adding a perpendicular voltage vector in
series with a phase. This vector is derived
from the other two phases via shunt
connected transformers. The perpendicular
series voltage is made variable with a variety
of power electronics topologies. A circuit
concept that can handle voltage reversal can
provide phase shift in either direction. This
Controller is also referred to as Thyristor-
Controlled Phase Angle Regulator (TCPAR).