CH 1OF

Chapter 1
Fiber Optic
Communications
Subject:Opto Electronics
Engr.Abid Hussain
Chohan
Joseph C. Palais 1.1 1
Section 1.1
Introduction
HISTORY
Early communications used light signals.
Hand signals used light (from the sun or the moon)
as an information carrier.
The modulator was the hand of the sender.
The detector was the eye of the receiver.
The processor was the brain of the receiver.

History
Early Optical Communications
Smoke signals
Blinker lights
Photophone: invented by Alexander Graham Bell
Properties of early optical communications systems:
1) slow data rate
2) poor integrity, high error rate

Modern Optical Communications
1960: The first laser was constructed.
1960-1970 Time Period:
Many laser applications were proposed.
One proposal was for an optical
communications link that operated line-of-sight
though the atmosphere.

Modern Optical Communications
Problems
A clear atmosphere was required for efficient
transmission.
The unguided atmospheric system needed an
unobstructed line-of-site.
Solution
In 1970, a low-loss, glass fiber waveguide was
developed at Corning.

Section 1.2
Basic Communications System
Information
Channel
Transmitter Receiver
Messages are sent from the transmitter through

the information channel to the receiver.

INFORMATION CHANNELS
Unguided Channels (Atmosphere)
Radio Broadcast
Television Broadcast
Wireless
Satellite
Guided Channels
Conducting Wires
Waveguides
Fibers

INFORMATION CHANNELS
Applications For Guided Channels

Applications include:
cable television
telephone
data links [i.e., local area networks (LANs)]
The triple play:
Voice
Video
Data

GENERAL OPTICAL SYSTEM
Transmitter Receiver
Message Destination
Origin
Modulator Processor
Electric Domain
Detector
Carrier
Source Optic
Domain
Coupler
Coupler Channel

COMPONENTS OF A GENERAL
OPTICAL SYSTEM
1.2.1 Message Origin: Puts the message into
electrical form. Examples include the microphone
and the video camera.
1.2.2 Modulator: Converts the electrical message
into proper format. Impresses the signal onto the
optical carrier. Modulation formats are analog and
digital.

OPTICAL SYSTEM
Analog (continuous)
Time
Digital (discrete)
1 0 1 0 1
Time

OPTIC SYSTEM
1.2.3 Carrier Source: Generates the lightwave
on which the information is carried.
Common devices are:
laser diode (LD)
light emitting diode (LED)
The carrier source is intensity modulated. As the
input current changes, the output optical power
changes in the same way.

OPTIC SYSTEM
The output power of the light source is proportional
to the input current.
Carrier Source
Electrical Domain Optical Domain

ELECTRICAL OPTICAL
CURRENT, Iin POWER, POUT

GENERAL FIBER OPTIC SYSTEM
Intensity modulation: The transfer characteristics of
the ideal light source is
Optic
Power
(P)
Input current (I)

Example:
Input Output
Current Optical Power
I P
0 t 0 t
The above graphs indicate that the optic
power is directly proportional to the input
current.
1.2.4 Coupler: Couples light from the source to the
fiber channel. The efficiency may not be high.
Why?
Answer:
1) Fibers are small (50 m diameters or less for
some fibers).
2) The fiber acceptance angle is small.

Acceptance
angle
Light ray
Light Fiber
Source

1.2.5 Information channel: Glass (or plastic)
fibers that are the transmission medium.
Desirable properties:
1) Low attenuation (losses limit path lengths)
2) Low pulse (waveform) distortion
Pulses spread out as they propagate down the
fiber as indicated on the next slide.

Pulse Distortion (Pulse Spread)
Input
Power
t
Power
t
Waveform after a short travel distance
Power
t
Waveform after further travel
Solution to pulse spreading:
The pulses need to be spread out more at the
transmitter, so they do not overlap with each other
at the receiver. This means sending fewer pulses
per second. That is, transmitting at a lower data
rate.
Conclusion: Distortion limits the allowed data rate.

Receiver Coupler: Transfers the optic power
from the fiber to the photodetector.
Optic Power Electric

Current
Fiber
Photodetector

1.2.6 Photodetector: Converts optical power
to electric current. Ideally, the current is a
replica of the current used to modulate the
light source.
Optical Power Electric

Current
(Pin)
(Iout)
Photodetector

Transfer Characteristic for Photodetector
Output current is
Output proportional to the
current
(i) input optical
power.
Optic Power (P)

Processing: Electrical domain processing consists

of the following.
1.2.7 Signal Processing

1) Amplification
2) Filtering to improve signal quality
3) Decision making circuitry for digital signals

Signal Quality Measures
Signal to noise ratio - measure for analog signals
Bit error rate - measure for digital
1.2.8 Message Destination
Devices such as output speakers, telephone sets,
video monitors, and computers.
1.2.9 Some Numbers
Important number in fiber optics

Common Units
Table
U
m
e
t
K
i
l
on
e
r
gi
t
s
a
m S
ym
b
o
klM
gme
l
e
na
g
a
ssu
t
h
sr
e
S
e
c
C
o
u
Jo
n
l
ed
mb st
Cc
Jei
m
h
ne
a
r
e g
e
y
W
a
t
H
e
r
N
wz
t
on W
H
zf
NFp
o
r
e
ow
q
r
cue
r
en
cy
A
m
K
e
l
v
C
sp
e
i
n
ur
e
s AC
KT

C u
e
Tr
m e
n
p
et
r
at
ur
e
F
a
r
a
O
hd
m R FCa
ep
sac
isi
t
a
ta
nn
cc
e
e
IMPORTANT CONSTANTS
Description Value Symbol

Velocity of light 3*108 m/s c
Planck constant 6.626*10-34 J*s h
Electron charge -1.6*10-19 C -e
Boltzmann constant 1.38*10-23 J/K k

PREFIXES
Prefix Symbol Multiplication Factor
tera T 1012
giga G 109
mega M 106
kilo k 103
centi c 10-2
milli m 10-3
micro 10-6
nano n 10-9
pico p 10-12
femto f 10-15

11
6
09
m

m
innc
rao
m
e
trom
icro
n
COMMON UNITS IN FIBER OPTICS
Common units for calculation involving
lengths are:
Optical wavelengths are usually in the above units.

Bandwidths Of Common Systems
Common Analog Systems
Type Bandwidth Comments

Voice 4 kHz Telephone
Music 10 kHz AM radio broadcast
Music 200 kHz FM radio broadcast
TV 6 MHz Television broadcast

Bandwidths Of Common Systems
Common Digital Systems
Type BW Comments
Voice 64 kbps Telephone
Ethernet 10 Mbps Xerox LAN
FDDI 100 Mbps Fiber distributed data

interface

DIGITIZING VOICE MESSAGES
Digitizing Steps
1) Pick the highest frequency:
fu = 4 kHz for voice
2) Sample at twice the highest frequency
yielding:
Sampling Rate = 2fu = 8000 samples/second
3) Use an 8-bit code for each sample. That is, a
sequence of 8 bits.

One 8-bit number consists of 8 time slots, each
containing a binary 0 or 1. There are 256 possible
combinations, since 28 = 256. Thus, a sequence
of 8 bits (combinations of zeroes and ones) will
represent the amplitude of each sample.

Calculate the data rate:

8000(samples/s) x 8 (bits/sample) = 64,000 b/s
Therefore, there are 64,000 b/s transmitted for a
digitized voice message.

MULTIPLEXING
We can multiplex numerous messages by
transmitting at high transmission rates and
interleaving the bits from separate messages.
This is referred to as time division multiplexing
(TDM). The messages share the transmission
line. The receiver separates the individual
messages.
The field commander was here

1.564,
10
24.06 6
MULTIPLEXING
Examples of time division multiplexing.
Example 1: The T1 transmission level

operates at a standard rate = 1.544 Mb/s. Since
Thus, 24 voice channels can be simultaneously

transmitted along a T1 transmission line.

DIGITIZING VOICE SIGNALS
Examples of time division multiplexing.
Example 2: The T3 transmission level

operates at a standard rate = 44.7 Mb/s.
44.7x106/64,000 = 698
A T3 transmission normally carries up to 672

voice channels.

ANALOG SIGNAL QUALITY
A measure of the quality of an analog signal is

the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). It is the signal
power divided by the noise power.
S/N = (Signal Power)/(Noise Power)
For analog television signals, SNR > 10,000 is

required for decent viewing.

DIGITAL SIGNAL QUALITY
The measure of quality for a digital system is the
bit error rate (BER). The BER is the fraction of
errors contained in a signal.
Example: A BER = 10-9 means that there is one

error for every 109 bits.
Digital systems require good bit error rates.

P1
Joseph C. Palais

dB
1.2
P
10log102
1.2.10 Computing Power Levels in Decibels
The decibel scale is useful for analysis and design
of fiber components and systems.
Component
(System)
P2
41

dB P
10log102
THE DECIBEL SCALE
This equation represents the decibel gain or loss

of the component (system). If there is loss the
decibel level will be negative, but if there is gain
then the decibel level will be positive.

DECIBEL SCALE
The decibel scale is used to compare the ratio of
two power levels.
Example: Suppose P2/P1 = 0.5. Then
dB = 10 log (0.5) = -3 dB
Example: If P2/P1 = 1, then
dB = 10 log 1 = 0 dB
Example: If P2/P1 > 1, then dB is positive
Example: If P2/P1 < 1, then dB is negative

P
4
4P
32
1321
DECIBEL SCALE FOR CASCADED
ELEMENTS
The dB scale is useful for analyzing a system of
cascaded elements.
P1
Joseph C. Palais
Element 1
1.2
P2
Element 2 Element 3
P3
44
P4
d
B

BP
1
0
ld
o
g
d
B
1
0
1
0
Thus

sytem
1
0

d
BP
l
o
g
2d
4
1
4
3B
1
0
1
0
2

1
0
l
o
g
3
4
3
2
P
2
1
0
Joseph C. Palais
2
1
ELEMENTS
1.2 45
ELEMENTS
The dB of the cascaded elements are simply
added together. This illustrates the great
advantage of the decibel scale.
If the element has a loss, a negative sign
is placed in front of the dB value in the
preceding equation.

DECIBEL ABSOLUTE POWER
SCALE
The decibel scale can be used to denote absolute
power if a reference power is specified. If the
reference power is set to 1 mW, we have the dBm
scale defined by
dBm = 10 log P
where P is in milliwatts. This is read as dB relative
to a milliwatt.

SCALE
Example: If P = 2 mW, then
dBm = 10 log 2 = 3 dBm
Signs on the result are important. The dBm for
powers above one milliwatt (P > 1) will be
positive. The dBm for powers below a milliwatt
(P < 1) will be negative.

SCALE
The dB scale is defined as:
dB = 10 log P
where P is in microwatts. This is read as dB

relative to a microwatt.

dB 10
lx2dBg21
om P
01
dB
m
d
B
1x,
2 x1
0
l
o
g
P
1
0
1
0
l
o
g
2P
1
0
P1
SCALE
dBm2 = dBm1 + dBx

Proof
Joseph C. Palais
dBm1
1.2
dBx dBm2
P2
50
Section 1.3
Wave Nature of Light
Sometimes light behaves as a wave and sometimes
light behaves as a particle. We will look at both
behaviors.
1.3.1 Wave Nature of Light
Light is an electromagnetic wave that satisfies
Maxwells Equations.
The electromagnetic spectrum is a range of
frequencies classified into groups.

Wave Nature of Light
Ultraviolet Millimeter
Infrared waves
Visible Microwaves Power
Radio
1016 1015 1014 1013 1012 1011 1010 109 108 107 106 105 104 103 102 101 1
Frequency (Hz)
f
v
WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT
Most of the frequencies in fiber optic systems are
In the Infrared.
Wavelength and frequency are related by:
v = c = 3 x108 m/s

(1.3)
where v is the velocity of the wave in the medium.

In free space,
All materials slow down the light waves, so v < c
in all materials. If the material is changed, then
the wave velocity changes along with the
wavelength. The frequency remains constant,
only the velocity and the wavelength will change.

Most fiber optic communications systems operate
in the infrared region of the spectrum.
Optical Spectrum (Partial)

Ultraviolet Visible Infrared
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 1.0 1.5 2.0

Wavelength (m)
Blue Red

cf3.8 /s3.510H
150m z
8614
Example: If is 0.85 m, find the frequency. In
this example the medium is not specified, so let
us assume that the medium is free space.

fH
Ts 1
4

3.50z
1 1 0
.
2
8
1
0
1
4
The period of oscillation T is defined as the time
it takes for the wave to complete one cycle. The
period for the frequency in the preceding
example is then

Fiber optic systems must have low loss. For
glass low loss occurs at several wavelengths.
The major operation regions (windows) are:
Wavelength Window
0.8-0.9 m First Window
~1.300 m Second Window
~1.550 m Third Window
~1.600 m Fourth Window
These are all in the infrared.

1.3.2
Whf
p c
Particle Nature of Light
Light is made up particles called photons. Each

photon has energy:
h = 6.626 x 10-34 J s (Plancks constant)

Shorter wavelength (higher frequency) waves have
greater photon energy.

(1.4)
PARTICLE NATURE OF
LIGHT
Example: How many photons are delivered each
second for a wave with average power P = 1W
at wavelength = 0.8 m?
The solution appears on the next slide.

W
h
.W
2
c
4
t
P 8
6
1
2.482
0

p6
1
9

6
p19

p
J1
h
1
8
0
o
0t

3
J
s
.
8
n

J
u
l
e
s
4
.
0
3
10photn
3
4 6
1
2
m
1
0
s
1
p
ho
t
n
s
PARTICLE NATURE OF LIGHT
The photon energy is:

The electron volt (eV) is another useful unit for
analysis of fiber optic systems. The electron volt
is defined as the energy acquired by an electron
accelerated across a 1 volt potential difference.
The conversion between electron volts and joules
is:
1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J
The 0.8 m photon has an energy of:
(2.48/1.6) = 1.55 eV

The electron volt (eV) is another useful unit for
analysis of fiber optic systems. The electron volt
is defined as the energy acquired by an electron
accelerated across a 1 volt potential difference.
The particle nature of light is used in explaining
the light sources and light detector later in the
text.

Section 1.4
Advantages of Glass Fibers
Cost: The cost of fiber is very low, because glass is plentiful
and cheap.
Weight: Fiber cables are smaller than conducting cables
and weigh much less.
Strength: Fibers are strong and flexible, enabling them to
go around corners. Glass fibers have a very high tensile
strength.

ADVANTAGES OF GLASS FIBERS
High informatioHigh information

capacity: Glass fiber can carry
more signals then a conducting
cable.

ADVANTAGES OF GLASS FIBERS
Low Loss: As the modulation frequency
increases, coaxial cable losses increase at a
faster rate than do fiber losses.
dB loss (1km length)
Copper
Fiberer
7
3 dB
4
f 3-dB
Modulation Frequency(Hz)

3-dB OPTICAL BANDWIDTH
As light propagates down a fiber at low modulation
frequencies, its loss remains constant. At higher
modulation frequencies the signal power begins to
decrease.
The 3-dB optical bandwidth is the frequency at
which the optical signal power is reduced by one
half. It is illustrated on the previous slide.

OPTICAL 3-dB BANDWIDTH
The 3dB optical bandwidth
4
fa
fa
3.5
f3-dB is half the frequency and magnitude of fa
3
f3-dB
OPTICAL POWER
fc
o p tic a l p o w e r
2.5
fc
2
1.5
Average power
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
time
TIME
fa3dBfc
OPTICAL 3-dB BANDWIDTH
The previous slide illustrates the 3-dB optical bandwidth.
The signal attenuation is caused by the spreading of the

wave (pulse spreading) as it propagates down the fiber,
resulting in a lower peak power.

COMPARISON OF A FIBER CABLE
WITH A WIRE CABLE
A wire cable consisting of 900 twisted pairs has a
diameter of 70 mm. Each wire pair carries 24 voice
channels. The cable capacity is then:
24 x 900 = 21,600 voice calls
Compare this capacity to that of a T3 fiber cable containing
144 fibers having a diameter of 12.7 mm. At the T3 rate there
are 672 voice channels per fiber.

COMPARISON OF A FIBER CABLE
WITH A WIRE CABLE
The fiber cable has total capacity:
672 x 144 = 96,768 voice calls
This is 4.5 times the capacity of the wire cable. In addition,

the fiber cross sectional area is 1/30th that of a wire cable.
The represents a great savings in space required for
installation.

ADVANTAGES OF FIBERS
A. Fibers are insulators as opposed to conducting wires.

1) No current
2) No radiation from the sides of the fiber
3) No coupling between adjacent fibers

B. Fibers reject interference. The following forms of
interference have no affect on fiber systems.
1) RFI: radio frequency interference from TV, radio, radar,
or other electronic signals.
2) EMI: electromagnetic interference from lighting,
sparking, or electromagnetic radiation.
3) EMP: electromagnetic pulse due to nuclear events.

C. Fibers can be used near high power transmission
lines because of their insulation properties,
whereas wire systems would pick up a large amount
of noise.
D. Security: Fiber systems are difficult to tap.
E. Compatibility: Fibers are compatible with
conventional electronics.

F. Corrosion resistant: Fiber, as opposed to wire systems,
resist corrosion.
G. Large temperature range: Glass melts at high
temperatures.

Section 1.5
Applications of Fiber Systems
1) Cable TV: Frequency-division-multiplexing (FDM) is
used to transmit television signals over fiber systems. Each
television channel has a bandwidth of 6 MHz.
TV Baseband Signal
Power
0 6 MHz f (Hz)

FREQUENCY DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING
The television signal can be modulated onto a sub-
carrier frequency fo. The baseband signal has been
shifted upwards in frequency.
TV Channel
Power
6 MHz
0 fo f (Hz)
sub-carrier
FREQUENCY DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING (FDM)
Several television channels can be multiplexed onto different
sub-carrier frequencies and the result used to modulate a
light source.
Channels
Electrical
1 2 3 4
6 MHz 6 MHz 6 MHz 6 MHz
0 f1 f2 f3 f4 f (Hz)
Sub-Carrier Frequencies

FREQUENCY DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING (FDM)
At the receiver the television signals are
demultiplexed by filters. Several tens of television
channels can be transmitted by frequency-
division-multiplexing (FDM) on a single fiber.

APPLICATIONS OF FIBER SYSTEMS
2) Telephone trunk lines: In 1976-77 large-scale
fiber lines were first deployed to connect telephone
exchanges at 45 Mb/s. Fiber data rates are now
beyond 10 Gb/s.
3) Transatlantic cables: In 1989 transatlantic
cables were introduced that could handle 40,000
voice calls. Now all the major oceans and seas have
fiber cables lying beneath them.

APPLICATIONS OF FIBER
SYSTEMS
4) Wired city: Due to increased demand, fiber-to-
the-home and fiber-to-the-curb systems are
available to bring higher data rates for video and
internet applications to businesses and to the
home.
5) Communications along electric railways: Fibers
are not affected by electrical interference from the
railways.
Joseph C. Palais 83
6) Communications along high voltage lines: Fibers
are not affected by interference from these lines.
7) Other video applications such as remote
monitoring and surveillance.
8) Local area networks (LANs), computers, file
systems: e.g., Ethernet.
9) Military applications such as tactical command
post telecommunications and fiber-guided
missiles.
Sensors: Measurements of temperature, pressure, velocity,
motion and more.
The following is an example for a hydrophone sound
sensor.
Free Fiber Fixed Fiber

Monitor
Light Source Fluid Detector
speaker
sound wave

The hydrophone works on the principle of external
modulation. The light is modulated by motion of
the fibers, causing misalignments in the
transmission system, resulting in a change in
power received.

Section 1.6
Summary and Discussion
DECISIONS FACED BY DESIGNERS
Fiber or metal cable
Full-duplex or half-duplex two-way communications
Modulation format (analog or digital)
Multiplexing schemes

Summary and Discussion
Wavelength of operation
Type of light source

Type of fiber
Choice of all other components

CH 1OF

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Chapter 1

Joseph C. Palais 1.1 2

Joseph C. Palais 1.1 3

Joseph C. Palais 1.1 4

Joseph C. Palais 1.1 5

Messages are sent from the transmitter through

Joseph C. Palais 1.2 7

Joseph C. Palais 1.2 8

Applications For Guided Channels

Joseph C. Palais 1.2 9

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Joseph C. Palais 1.2 13

Electrical Domain Optical Domain

Joseph C. Palais 1.2 14

Input current (I)

Joseph C. Palais 1.2 15

Joseph C. Palais 1.2 17

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Optic Power Electric

Joseph C. Palais 1.2 22

Optical Power Electric

Joseph C. Palais 1.2 23

Transfer Characteristic for Photodetector

Optic Power (P)

Joseph C. Palais 1.2 24

Processing: Electrical domain processing consists

1.2.7 Signal Processing

Joseph C. Palais 1.2 25

Joseph C. Palais 1.2 26

Description Value Symbol

Joseph C. Palais 1.2 28

Joseph C. Palais 1.2 29

Optical wavelengths are usually in the above units.

Joseph C. Palais 1.2 30

Type Bandwidth Comments

Joseph C. Palais 1.2 31

FDDI 100 Mbps Fiber distributed data

Joseph C. Palais 1.2 32

Joseph C. Palais 1.2 33

Joseph C. Palais 1.2 34

Calculate the data rate:

Joseph C. Palais 1.2 35

The field commander was here

Example 1: The T1 transmission level

Thus, 24 voice channels can be simultaneously

Joseph C. Palais 1.2 37

Example 2: The T3 transmission level

A T3 transmission normally carries up to 672

Joseph C. Palais 1.2 38

A measure of the quality of an analog signal is

S/N = (Signal Power)/(Noise Power)

For analog television signals, SNR > 10,000 is

Joseph C. Palais 1.2 39

Example: A BER = 10-9 means that there is one

Digital systems require good bit error rates.

Joseph C. Palais 1.2 40

This equation represents the decibel gain or loss

Joseph C. Palais 1.2 42