Calculus Chapter 1

1.
1 Lines
Increments
If a particle moves from the point (x1,y1) to the point

(x2,y2), the increments in its coordinates are
x x2 x1 and y y2 y1
1.1 Lines
Slope
Let P1= (x1,y1) and P2= (x2,y2) be points on a nonvertical

line L. The slope of L is
P2(x2,y2)
rise y y2 y1 y
m P1(x1,y1) Q(x2,y1)
run x x2 x1 x
1.1 Lines
Theorem: If two lines are parallel, then they have the

same slope and if they have the same slope, then
they are parallel.
Proof: If L1 || L2, then 1= 2
L1 L2 and m1= m2. Conversely, if
slope m1 slope m2 m1 = m2, then 1= 2 and
m1 m2
1
2 L1 || L2.
1 1
1.1 Lines
Theorem: If two non vertical lines L1and L2 are perpendicular,

then their slopes satisfy m1m2 = -1 and conversely.
L
Proof: ADC ~ CDB
C L1
2
m1 = tan 1 = a/h
Slope m1 1 Slope m2
m2 = tan 2 = -h/a
1 h 2
A D a B
so m1m2 =(a/h)(-h/a) = -1
1.1 Lines
Equations of lines
Point-Slope Formula y = m(x x1) + y1
Slope-Intercept form y = mx + b
Standard form Ax + By = C
y = a Horizontal line slope of zero
x =a Vertical line no slope
1.1 Lines
Regression Analysis
1. Plot the data
2. Find the regression equation y = mx + b
3. Superimpose the graph on the data points.
4. Use the regression equation to predict y-values.
1.1 Lines
Coordinate Proofs
1. State given and prove.
2. Draw a picture.
3. Label coordinates, use (0,0) if possible.
4. Fill in missing coordinates.
5. Use algebra to prove
parallel/perpendicular-slope
equidistant-distance formula
bisect-midpoint
1.1 Lines
B(0,a)
Prove the midpoint of the hypotenuse
of a right triangle is equidistant M(b/2,a/2)
from the three vertices.
Given: BAC is a right triangle A(0,0) C(b,0)
Prove: AM = BM = CM
2 2
b a b2 a2 Since AM = BM = CM, the
AM 0 0
2 2 4 4
midpoint of the hypotenuse
b
2
a
BM 0 a

2

b2 a2

of a right triangle is
2 2 4 4 equidistant from the three
2 2 vertices
b a b2 a2
CM b 0
2 2 4 4
1.2 Functions and Graphs
Function
A function from a set D to a set R is a rule that

assigns a unique element R to each element D.
y = f(x) y is a function of x
Domain All possible x values
Range All possible y values

x (, )
0
xa ( a, )
a
a xb ( a, b) open
a b
a xb [ a, b] closed
a b
a xb ( a, b] half opened
a b
a xb [a, b) half opened
a b
y=mx
Domain(,)
Range(,)
y=x2
Domain(,)
Range[0,)
y=x3
Domain(,)
Range(,)
y = 1/x
Domain x 0
Range y 0
y x
Domain[0,)
Range[0,)
Function Domain Range
y=x ( , ) ( , )
y = x2 ( , ) [0, )
y = |x| ( , ) [0, )
y 9 x2 [-3,3] [0,3]
y x2 [-2, ) [0, )
Definitions Even Function, Odd Function
A function y = f(x) is an
even function of x if f(-x) = f(x)
odd function of x if f(-x) = -f(x)
for every x in the functions domain.
Even Function symmetrical about the y-axis.
Odd Function - symmetrical about the origin.
Odd Function Even Function

symmetrical about the origin. symmetrical about the y-axis.
(x,y) (-x,y) (x,y)
(-x,-y)
Transformations
h(x) = af(x) vertical stretch or shrink
h(x) = f(ax) horizontal stretch or shrink
h(x) = f(x) + k vertical shift
h(x) = f(x + h) horizontal shift
h(x) = -f(x) reflection in the x-axis
h(x) = f(-x) reflection in the y-axis
Piece Functions Domain (-,)

Range [-3, )
x2 x 1
f ( x)
2 x 1 x 1
Piece Functions
| x| x 2
Domain (-,)
f ( x) x 2 2 x 1 Range [0, )
x 1 x 1

Composite Functions f(g(x))

f(x) = x2, g(x) = 3x - 1
Find:
1. f(g(2))
25
2. g(f(-1))
2
3. g(f(x))
3x2 1
4. f(g(x))
(3x 1)2 = 9x2 6x + 1
1.3 Exponential Functions
Definition Exponential Function
Let a be a positive real number other than 1,

the function f(x) = ax is the exponential
function with base a.
Rules For Exponents

If a > 0 and b > 0, the following hold true for all real
numbers x and y.
1
1. a a a
x y x y
4. a b (ab)
x x x
7. a x
-x
a
x x p
a x
a a q
2. y a x y 5. x 8. a a p
q
a b b
3. a x y
a xy
6. a 1
0
Use the rules for exponents to

solve for x.
4x = 128

2x = 1/32

(2)2x = 27

2 = 2
x -5
2x = 7

x = -5

x = 7/2

(x y )
3 2/3 1/2 27x = 9-x+1

x3/2y1/3
(33)x = (32)-x+1

33x = 3-2x+2

3x = -2x+ 2

5x = 2

x = 2/5

49 9 1/9 5
4 5 81 32
2 1 1/8 2
80/9 8 9/4 36
1/25 1/49 4 5
Properties of f (x) = ax
Domain: (-, )
Range: (0, )
Increasing for: a > 1
Decreasing for: 0 < a < 1
Point Shared On All Graphs: (0, 1)
Asymptote: y = 0
Natural Exponential Function where e

is the natural base and e 2.718
x
x 1
f ( x) e x
e lim 1
x x
Function f(x) = 2x h(x) = (0.5)x g(x) = ex
Domain (-, ) (-, ) (-, )

Range (0, ) (0, ) (0, )
Increasing or
Decreasing Inc. Dec. Inc.
Point Shared
On All Graphs (0, 1)
Use translation of functions to graph the following.
Determine the domain and range of each.
1. f(x) = -5(x + 2) 3
2. g(x) = (1/3)(x 1) + 2
Definitions Exponential Growth, Exponential Decay
The function y = k ax, k > 0 is a model for exponential

growth if a > 1, and a model for exponential decay
if 0 < a < 1.
t
y new amount
y yO b h
yo original amount
b base
t time
h half life
An isotope of sodium, 24Na, has a half-life of 15
hours. A sample of this isotope has mass 2 g.
(a) Find the amount remaining after t hours.
(b) Find the amount remaining after 60 hours.
(c) Estimate the amount remaining after 4 days.
(d) Use a graph to estimate the time required for the
mass to be reduced to 0.1 g.
An isotope of sodium, Na, has a half-life of 15
(a) Find the amount remaining after t hours.
(b) Find the amount remaining after 60 hours.
a. y = yobt/h b. y = yobt/h
y = 2 (1/2)(t/15) y = 2 (1/2)(60/15)
y = 2(1/2)4
y = .125 g
An isotope of sodium, 24Na, has a half-life of 15
(c.) Estimate the amount remaining after 4 days.
(d.) Use a graph to estimate the time required for the
mass to be reduced to 0.1 g.
c. y = yobt/h d.
y = 2 (1/2)(96/15)
y = 2(1/2)6.4
y = .023 g
A bacteria double every three days. There are
50 bacteria initially present
(a) Find the amount after 2 weeks.
(b) When will there be 3000 bacteria?
a. y = yobt/h
y = 50 (2)(14/3)
y = 1269 bacteria
A bacteria double every three days. There are
50 bacteria initially present
When will there be 3000 bacteria?
b. y = yobt/h
3000 = 50 (2)(t/3)
60 = 2t/3
1.4 Parametric Equations

Equations where x and y are functions of a
third variable, such as t. That is,
x = f(t) and y = g(t).
The graph of parametric equations are called

parametric curves and are defined by (x, y)
= (f(t), g(t)).
Equations defined in terms of x and y. These

may or may not be functions. Some
examples include:
x2 + y2 = 4
y = x2 + 3x + 2
Sketch the graph of the parametric equation for t

in the interval [0,3]
x 1 2t t x y
0 1 0
y 3t
1 -1 3
2 -3 6
3 -5 9
Eliminate the parameter t from the curve
1 x
x 1 2t 2t 1 x y 3
2
y 3t 1 x
t
2 3 3
y x
2 2
If we let t = the angle, then:
Circle:
x cos t y sin t 0 t 2
t
Since: sin 2 t cos 2 t 1
y2 x2 1
We could identify the
parametric equations as a x2 y 2 1
circle.
Ellipse: x 3cos t y 4sin t
x y
cos t sin t
3 4
2 2
x y
cos 2 t sin 2 t
3 4
2 2
x y This is the equation of
1
3 4 an ellipse.
The path of a particle in two-dimensional space can

be modeled by the parametric equations x = 2 + cos t
and y = 3 + sin t. Sketch a graph of the path of the
particle for 0 t 2.
How is t
represented
on this
graph?

t= t=0

Graphing calculators and other mathematical

software can plot parametric equations much more
efficiently then we can. Put your graphing
calculator and plot the following equations. In
what direction is t increasing?
(a) x = t2, y = t3 (b) x ln t , y t ; t 1
(c) x = sec , y = tan ; -/2 < < /2

Parametric equations can easily be converted to Cartesian
equations by solving one of the equations for t and
substituting the result into the other equation.
(a) x = t2, y = t3
x
3
3
t x, y x 2
(b) x ln t , y t for t 1
y t t y2
x ln t ln y 2
x ln y y e y e y e ; x 0
2 2 x x x
(c) x = sec t, y = tan t

where -/2 < t < /2
Hint: sec2 tan2 = 1
x sec t, y tan t
2 2 2 2
x y sec t- tan t 1
2 2 2 2
x y 1
2 2
Find a parametrization for the line segment with endpoints

(2,1) and (-4,5).
x = 2 + at y = 1 + bt Cartesian Equation
m = (5 1)/(-4 2) = -2/3
when t = 1, a = -6
when t = 1, b = 4 y = mx + b
1 = (-2/3)(2) + b
x = 2 6t and y = 1 + 4t b = 7/3
y = (-2/3)x + 7/3
1.5 Functions and Logarithms
A function is one-to-one if two domain values do
not have the same range value.
Algebraically, a function is one-to-one if
f (x1) f (x2) for all x1 x2.
Graphically, a function is one-to-one if its graph
passes the horizontal line test. That is, if any
horizontal line drawn through the graph of a
function crosses more than once, it is not one-to-
one.
To be one-to-one, a function must pass the horizontal line test as
well as the vertical line test.
1 3 1 2
y x y x x y2
2 2
one-to-one not one-to-one not a function

(also not one-to-one)
Determine if the following functions are one-to-one.
(a) f (x) = 1 + 3x 2x 4
(b) g(x) = cos x + 3x 2
x
e e
x
(c) h( x)
2
(d) f ( x) 5 x
The inverse of a one-to-one function is obtained

by exchanging the domain and range of the
function. The inverse of a one-to-one function f is
denoted with f -1.
Domain of f = Range of f -1 To prove functions are

Range of f = Domain of f -1 inverses show that
f 1(x) = y <=> f (y) = x f(f-1(x)) = f-1(f(x)) = x
To obtain the formula for the inverse of a

function, do the following:
1. Let f (x) = y.
2. Exchange y and x.
3. Solve for y.
4. Let y = f 1(x).
Given an x value, we can find a y value.
Inverse functions:
1 1
f x x 1 y x 1
2 2
Switch x and y:
1
x y 1
2 Inverse functions
Solve for y: are reflections about
1 y = x.
x 1 y y 2x 2
2
f 1 x 2 x 2
1
f x x 1
2
f 1
x 2x 2
Prove f(x) and f-1(x) are inverses.
1 1
f ( f ( x)) f (2 x 2) (2 x 2) 1 x 1 1 x
2
1 1 1 1
f ( f ( x)) f x 1 2 x 1 2 x 2 2 x
2 2
Determine the formula for the inverse of the

following one-to-one functions.
3x 1
(a) h( x )
x2
(b) f ( x ) 2 x 3 3
(c) g ( x) 3 x
You can obtain the graph of the inverse of a one-

to-one function by reflecting the graph of the
original function through the line y = x.
Sketch a graph of f (x) = 2x and sketch a graph of
its inverse. What is the domain and range of the
inverse of f.
Domain: (0, )
Range: (-, )
The inverse of an exponential function is called a

logarithmic function.
Definition: x = a y if and only if y = log a x

The function f (x) = log a x is called a logarithmic
function.
Domain: (0, )
Range: (-, )
Asymptote: x = 0
Increasing for a > 1
Decreasing for 0 < a < 1
Common Point: (1, 0)
Find the inverse of g(x) = 3x.
Definition: x = a y if and only if y = log a x
1
g ( x) log 3 x
1. log a (ax) = x for all x
2. alog ax = x for all x > 0
3. log a (xy) = log a x + log a y
4. log a (x/y) = log a x log a y
5. log a xn = n log a x
Common Logarithm: log 10 x = log x
Natural Logarithm: log e x = ln x
All the above properties hold.
The natural and common logarithms can be
found on your calculator. Logarithms of other
bases are not. You need the change of base
formula. log x
log a x b
log b a
where b is any other appropriate base.

$1000 is invested at 5.25 % interest compounded annually.
How long will it take to reach $2500?
1000 1.0525 2500

t
1.0525
t
2.5 We use logs when we have an
unknown exponent.
ln 1.0525 ln 2.5
t
17.9 years
t ln 1.0525 ln 2.5
ln 2.5 In real life you would have to

t 17.9 wait 18 years.
ln 1.0525
Example 7: Indonesian Oil Production (million barrels per year):
1960 20.56 Use the natural logarithm

1970 42.10 regression equation to estimate
oil production in 1982 and 2000.
1990 70.10
How do we know that a logarithmic equation is appropriate?
In real life, we would need more points or past experience.

1. Determine the exact value of log 8 2.

2. Determine the exact value of ln e 2.3.
3. Evaluate log 7.3 5 to four decimal places.
4. Write as a single logarithm: ln x + 2ln y 3ln z.
5. Solve 2x + 5 = 3 for x.
1.6 Trigonometric Functions
A
The Radian measure of angle ACB r

s
at the center of the unit circle equals
the length of the arc that ACB cuts C B
from the unit circle.
s
but for the unit circle, r 1
r
so s
terminal ray
y x y
sine: sin cosine: cos
r r P(x,y)
r
y x
tangent: tan cotangent: cot y x
x y
r r
cosecant: csc secant: sec x
y x initial ray
90
105 75
135
120 60
45
(2,/4)
150 30
165 15
(5,5 /6)
180 0
(4, 11/6)
195 345
210 330
225 315
(-4, /2)
240 300
255 270 285
Let a point P have rectangular coordinates (x,y)
and polar coordinates (r,). Then
x r cos x y r
2 2 2
y r sin y
tan x 0
x
1 3 1 3
2 , 2
(0,1) ,
2 2 2 2
, 2 2 2
2 2 ,
2 2 60 1
3 1 30
3 1
, ,
2 2 3
2 2
2
45 1

(1,0) (1,0) 45
1
3 1 3 1
, ,
2 2 2 2
S A
2 2
2 2 ,
, 2 2
2 2

1 3
,
1 3
,
T C

2 2 (0,1) 2 2
Even and Odd Trig Functions:
Even functions behave like polynomials with even exponents,
in that when you change the sign of x, the y value doesnt
change.
Cosine is an even function because: cos cos
Secant is also an even function, because it is the reciprocal of

cosine.
Even functions are symmetric about the y - axis.

Even and Odd Trig Functions:
Odd functions behave like polynomials with odd exponents,
in that when you change the sign of x, the sign of the y value
also changes.
Sine is an odd function because: sin sin
Cosecant, tangent and cotangent are also odd, because their

formulas contain the sine function.
Odd functions have origin symmetry.

Definition Periodic Function, Period
A function f(x) is periodic if there is a positive

number p such that f(x + p) = f(x)
for every value of x. The smallest
such value of p is the period of p.
Vertical stretch or shrink; Vertical shift

reflection about x-axis
Positive d moves up.
a 1 is a stretch.
y a f b x c d
Horizontal stretch or shrink; Horizontal shift
reflection about y-axis Positive c moves left.
b 1 is a shrink.
2
A is the f x A sin x C D
amplitude. B Vertical shift
B is the period. Horizontal shift
B
A C
2
D y 1.5sin x 1 2
4
Let be the acute angle of a right triangle with sin = 3/5.
Find the exact values of the other five trig functions.
Show all your work.
y 3 r 5
sin csc
r 5 y 3 5
x 4 r 5 3
cos sec
r 5 x 4
y 3 x 4
tan cot 4
x 4 y 3
If sec 2 3 / 3 and sin 1 / 2

find the exact value of cot
3

x 3 -1
cot 3
y 1 2
Find the amplitude, period, and frequency of the
simple harmonic motion.
3 t
y sin
4 2
2 2
Amplitude Period 4 Frequency
b
2
Find the exact values without using a calculator:
(a) tan (11/6) (b) sec(-3/4) (c) cot (-5/3)
3 2 3

3 3
Given that tan = 3/5, in quadrant III, -5
and cos = -1/2, in quadrant II, Find
(a) cos( - ) (b) sin 2 -3
34
(a) cos cos + sin sin
5 1 3 3 5 3 3 5 34 3 102 2

34 2 34 2 2 34 68 3

(b) sin 2 sin 2 = 2 sin cos -1
3 5 30 15
2
34 34 34 17
Verify the identities. Show all your work.
cos x 1 1 tan 4 x
(a) cot x csc x (b) sec 2 x 1 tan 2
x
sin x
cos x 1 cos x 1 (1 tan 2 x)(1 tan 2 x)

1 tan 2
x
sin x sin x sin x 1 tan x
2
(c) sin( + x) = -sin x
sin cos x + sin x cos

0 cos x + sin x (-1) = -sin x
Find the exact values without using a calculator.
1 3
(a) cos 1 (b) tan
1
(c) sec-1 (2)
2 3
120 240 150 330 60 300

Find the exact values without a calculator.
1 4
(a) sin tan 3
1 (b) cos 2 sin (c) tan(sec-1x)
5 5
x
34 5
3 4 x2 1

5 3
1
3 3 34 cos 2 =cos2 - sin2 x2 1

34 34 9 16 7

25 25 25
Solve each equation for exact solutions in the interval [0,2).
(a) cos2 x 1 = 0 (b) 2 cos2 x + 1 = -3 cos x

cos2 x = +1 2 cos2 x + 3 cos x+ 1 = 0
cos x = 1 or cos x = -1 (2cos x + 1)(cos x + 1) = 0
x = 0, x = x = 2/3, 4/3 x =
(c) sin2x = 0
2sin x cos x = 0
sin x = 0 or cos x = 0
x = 0, /2, ,3/2
Solve each equation for exact solutions in the interval [0,2).
(a) tan x sin x sin x = 0 (b) 2cos x sin x - cos x = 0

sin x(tan x 1) = 0 cos x(2sin x 1) = 0
sin x= 0 or tan x 1 = 0 cos x = 0 or 2 sin x 1 = 0
x = 0, x = /4, 5/4 x = /2, 3/2 or sin x =
x = /6, 5/6
(c) tan2 x = 3
tan x 3
x = /3, 2/3 4/3 5/3
0 1 0 1
1/2 3 /2 3 /3 2 2 3 /3 3
2 /2 2 /2 1 2 2 1
1/2 3 2
3 /2 3 /3 2 3 /3
1 0 1 0
3 /2 1/2
3 2 3 /3 2 3 /3
2 /2 1 2 2
2 /2 1
1/2 3 /2 3 /3 2 2 3 /3 3
0 1 0 1
1/2 3 /2 3 /3 2 2 3 / 3 3

2 /2 2 /2 1 2 2 1
3 /2
1/2 3 2 3 /3 2 3 /3
1 0 1
0
3 /2 1/2 3 2 3 /3 2 3 / 3
2 /2 2 /2
2 2
1 1
3 /3 2 23 / 3 3
1/2 3 /2
1
0 1 0

Calculus Chapter 1

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Calculus Chapter 1

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1.

If a particle moves from the point (x1,y1) to the point

Let P1= (x1,y1) and P2= (x2,y2) be points on a nonvertical

Theorem: If two lines are parallel, then they have the

Theorem: If two non vertical lines L1and L2 are perpendicular,

A function from a set D to a set R is a rule that

Domain All possible x values

Range All possible y values

Odd Function Even Function

(x,y) (-x,y) (x,y)

Piece Functions Domain (-,)

Composite Functions f(g(x))

Definition Exponential Function

Let a be a positive real number other than 1,

Rules For Exponents

Use the rules for exponents to

Natural Exponential Function where e

Domain (-, ) (-, ) (-, )

The function y = k ax, k > 0 is a model for exponential

1.4 Parametric Equations

x = f(t) and y = g(t).

The graph of parametric equations are called

Equations defined in terms of x and y. These

Sketch the graph of the parametric equation for t

Eliminate the parameter t from the curve

Since: sin 2 t cos 2 t 1

The path of a particle in two-dimensional space can

Graphing calculators and other mathematical

(a) x = t2, y = t3 (b) x ln t , y t ; t 1

(c) x = sec , y = tan ; -/2 < < /2

(c) x = sec t, y = tan t

Find a parametrization for the line segment with endpoints

one-to-one not one-to-one not a function

The inverse of a one-to-one function is obtained

Domain of f = Range of f -1 To prove functions are

To obtain the formula for the inverse of a

Prove f(x) and f-1(x) are inverses.

Determine the formula for the inverse of the

You can obtain the graph of the inverse of a one-

The inverse of an exponential function is called a

Definition: x = a y if and only if y = log a x

where b is any other appropriate base.

1000 1.0525 2500

ln 2.5 In real life you would have to

1960 20.56 Use the natural logarithm

How do we know that a logarithmic equation is appropriate?

In real life, we would need more points or past experience.

1. Determine the exact value of log 8 2.

The Radian measure of angle ACB r

Cosine is an even function because: cos cos

Secant is also an even function, because it is the reciprocal of

Even functions are symmetric about the y - axis.

Sine is an odd function because: sin sin

Cosecant, tangent and cotangent are also odd, because their

Odd functions have origin symmetry.

Definition Periodic Function, Period

A function f(x) is periodic if there is a positive

Vertical stretch or shrink; Vertical shift

If sec 2 3 / 3 and sin 1 / 2

(a) tan (11/6) (b) sec(-3/4) (c) cot (-5/3)

cos x 1 cos x 1 (1 tan 2 x)(1 tan 2 x)

(c) sin( + x) = -sin x

sin cos x + sin x cos

120 240 150 330 60 300