NEC Level-1 Training

Session
Day-1

Haroon
Goraya
 Presentation Contents:
Back to Basics
Microwaves
Why Microwaves?
Analog/ Digital Transmission
Analog-to-Digital Converter
Pulse Code Modulation
Modulation
Analog Modulation
Digital Modulation
Why Digital Modulation?
Multiplexing
Types of Multiplexing
Multiplexing Hierarchies
Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
E-Carrier System
E-Carrier Hierarchy Levels
 Back to Basics
Wave
A wave is a disturbance that propagates (travels) through space and
time, usually by transference of energy. For example, sound waves
propagate via air molecules slamming into their neighbors, which push
their neighbors into their neighbors (and so on); when air molecules
collide with their neighbors, they also bounce away from them (restoring
force). This keeps the molecules from actually traveling with the wave.
Waves travel and transfer energy from one point to another, often with
no permanent displacement of the particles of the mediumthat is, with
little or no associated mass transport. They consist instead of oscillations
or vibrations around almost fixed locations. Imagine a cork on rippling
water, it would bob up and down staying in about the same place while
the wave itself moves outward. When we say that a wave carries energy
but not mass, we are referring to the fact that even as a wave travels
outward from the center (carrying energy of motion), the medium itself
does not flow with it.
 Back to Basics
Types of Waves
Here are some of the many famous types of waves;
Sound Waves
Standing Waves
Electromagnetic Waves
Microwaves
Properties of Waves
Frequency
Rate of oscillation of a wave is Frequency.
Wavelength
Distance between successive crests or successive troughs is
Wavelength.
Relationship b/w Frequency & Wavelength
Speed of Wave = Frequency x Wavelength
 Back to Basics
Electromagnetic Waves (EM Waves)
Self-propagating waves that can travel in both Vacuum & Matter with speed of
light (Theoretically).
It comprises electric and magnetic field components, which oscillate in phase perpendicular
to each other and perpendicular to the direction of energy propagation.
EM radiation carries energy and momentum that may be imparted to matter with which it
interacts.
According to Maxwell's equations, a spatially-varying electric field generates a time-varying
magnetic field and vice versa. Therefore, as an oscillating electric field generates an
oscillating magnetic field, the magnetic field in turn generates an oscillating electric field,
and so on. These oscillating fields together form an electromagnetic wave.
When any wire (or other conducting object such as an antenna) conducts alternating current,
electromagnetic radiation is propagated at the same frequency as the electric current.
Depending on the circumstances, electromagnetic radiation may behave as a wave or as
particles.
When EM radiation impinges upon a conductor, it couples to the conductor, travels along it,
and induces an Electric current on the surface of that conductor by exciting the electrons of
the conducting material. This effect (the skin effect) is used in antennas.
 Back to Basics
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Its is the range of all possible frequencies of electromagnetic radiation. The
electromagnetic spectrum extends
from below frequencies used for modern radio to gamma radiation at the short-
wavelength end, covering
wavelengths from thousands of kilometers down to a fraction of the size of an atom. The
long wavelength limit
is the size of the universe itself, while it is thought that the short wavelength limit is in
the vicinity of the Planck
length, although in principle the spectrum is infinite and continuous.
 Microwaves
Microwaves are electromagnetic waves with wavelengths
ranging from as long as one meter to as short as one
millimeter, or equivalently, with frequencies between
300MHz (0.3GHz) and 300GHz.
Electromagnetic waves longer (lower frequency) than
microwaves are called Radio waves".
 Why Microwaves?
Microwave Frequencies are being heavily employed in
todays world for a million different purposes. Some of
the reasons which make Microwave ideal for employment
in Human World are;
Microwave do not carry huge amounts of energy & therefore are far
less harmful to humans than X-Rays, Gamma Rays etc.
Microwave Frequencies fall below Visible Light spectrum & well
above the Audible Sound levels & therefore can not be seen/ heard
by human beings.
Microwaves have ideal ratios of Frequency, Power Levels &
Wavelengths which enable them to travel long distances while
being less prone to Man made/ Machine made interference.
Microwaves have enough penetration capability (Cm range) which
enables them to pass through obstacles if they are not thick
enough.
Microwaves when directed (Focused), can provide an ideal Point-to-
Point link & hence the extensive usage in Telecommunications.
 Analog / Digital Transmission
Analog Transmission Digital Transmission

Analog Modulation Scheme Digital Modulation Scheme

is used to Modulate an is used to Modulate an
Analog Baseband Signal on Analog Baseband Signal on
a High Frequency Carrier a High Frequency Carrier
for transmission over a for transmission over a
Medium. Analog Medium.
Transmissio
n
Baseband Analog
Analog Analog
Analog Demodulati
Modulation Signal
Signal on
Digital
Transmissio
n
Baseband
Digital Analog/
Analog/ Digital
Demodulati Digital
Digital Modulation
on Signal
Signal
 Analog-to- Digital (A/D) Converter
Typically, an ADC is an electronic device that converts an input analog voltage
(or current) to a digital number proportional to the magnitude of the voltage or
current.
The digital output may use different coding schemes, such as binary, Gray code
or two's complement binary.
The resolution of the converter indicates the number of discrete values it can
produce over the range of analog values. The values are usually stored
electronically in binary form, so the resolution is usually expressed in bits.
For example, an ADC with a resolution of 8 bits can encode an analog input to
one in 256 different levels, since 2 8 = 256.
Resolution can also be defined electrically, and expressed in volts. The minimum
change in voltage required to guarantee a change in the output code level is
called the LSB (least significant bit, since this is the voltage represented by a
change in the LSB). The resolution Q of the ADC is equal to the LSB voltage.
The analog signal is continuous in time and it is necessary to convert this to a
flow of digital values. It is therefore required to define the rate at which new
digital values are sampled from the analog signal. The rate of new values is
called the sampling rate or sampling frequency of the converter.
Perfect reconstruction of the sampled signal is only possible if the Sampling Rate
is higher than twice the highest frequency of the Signal.
Quantization error is due to the finite resolution of the ADC, and is an
unavoidable imperfection in all types of ADC. The magnitude of the quantization
error at the sampling instant is between zero and half of one LSB.
Analog-to- Digital (A/D) Converter
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
PCM is a digital representation of an analog signal where the
magnitude of the signal is sampled regularly at uniform intervals, then
quantized to a series of symbols in a numeric (usually binary) code.
Modulation
. In the diagram, a sine wave (red curve) is sampled and quantized for pulse
code modulation. The sine wave is sampled at regular intervals, shown as
ticks on the x-axis. For each sample, one of the available values (ticks on the
y-axis) is chosen by some algorithm (in this case, the floor function is used).
This produces a fully discrete representation of the input signal (shaded
area) that can be easily encoded as digital data for storage or manipulation.
For the sine wave example at right, we
can verify that the quantized values at
the sampling moments are 7, 9, 11, 12,
13, 14, 14, 15, 15, 15, 14, etc. Encoding
these values as binary numbers would
result in the following set of nibbles: 0111,
1001, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110, 1110, 1111,
1111, 1111, 1110, etc. These digital values
could then be further processed or analyzed
by a purpose-specific digital signal processor
or general purpose CPU.
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Encoding for transmission
Pulse-code modulation can be either return-to-zero (RZ) or non-return-
to-zero (NRZ). For a NRZ system to be synchronized using in-band
information, there must not be long sequences of identical symbols,
such as ones or zeroes. For binary PCM systems, the density of 1-
symbols is called ones-density.
 Modulation
Modulation is the process of varying one or more properties (Amplitude,
Frequency, Phase) of a high frequency periodic waveform, called the carrier
signal, with respect to a modulating signal.
The aim of Modulation is to transfer a message signal (Baseband Signal,
Digital Bit Stream) over a distance & be received at the Receiver Side of
the Hop.
 Analog Modulation
In analog modulation, the modulation is applied continuously in response to
the analog information signal.
Common analog modulation techniques are:
Amplitude modulation (AM) (here the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied
in accordance to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal)
Double-sideband modulation (DSB)
Double-sideband modulation with unsuppressed carrier (DSB-WC) (used on the
AM radio broadcasting band)
Double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission (DSB-SC)
Double-sideband reduced carrier transmission (DSB-RC)
Single-sideband modulation (SSB, or SSB-AM),
SSB with carrier (SSB-WC)
SSB suppressed carrier modulation (SSB-SC)
Vestigial sideband modulation (VSB, or VSB-AM)
Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM)
Angle modulation
Frequency modulation (FM) (here the frequency of the carrier signal is
varied in accordance to the instantaneous frequency of the modulating
signal)
Phase modulation (PM) (here the phase shift of the carrier signal is varied
in accordance to the instantaneous phase shift of the modulating signal)
Analog Modulation
 Digital Modulation
In digital modulation, an analog carrier signal is modulated by a digital bit stream.
Digital modulation methods can be considered as digital-to-analog conversion, and
the corresponding demodulation or detection as analog-to-digital conversion. The
changes in the carrier signal are chosen from a finite number of M alternative
symbols (the modulation alphabet).
These are the most fundamental digital modulation techniques:
In the case of PSK, a finite number of phases are used.
In the case of FSK, a finite number of frequencies are used.
In the case of ASK, a finite number of amplitudes are used.
In the case of QAM, a finite number of at least two phases, and at least two
amplitudes are used.
 Why Digital Modulation?
Digital Modulation has several very important benefits over Analog
Modulation. This is the main reason why Digital Modulation Schemes are
being employed in our world extensively. Some of these benefits are as
follows;
Data integrity. Repeaters take out cumulative problems in
transmission. This enables transmission over longer distances.
It is easy to Multiplex large channel capacities with Digital Modulation.
Encryption in Digital Modulation is easy to implement, hence added
security.
Digital amplifiers regenerate an exact signal, eliminating cumulative
errors. An incoming (analog) signal is sampled, its value is
determined, and the node then generates a new signal from the bit
value; the incoming signal is discarded. With analog circuits,
intermediate nodes amplify the incoming signal, noise and all.
Information density. Digital systems can carry far more information in
the same channel. This also implies that this information can be
stored in less space.
 Multiplexing
In Telecommunications Multiplexing is a process where
multiple analog message signals or digital data streams are
combined into one signal over a shared medium. The aim is
to share an expensive resource. For example, in
telecommunications, several phone calls may be
transferred using one wire
A multiplexing technique may be further extended into a
multiple access method or channel access method, for
example TDM into Time-division multiple access (TDMA)
and statistical multiplexing into carrier sense multiple
access (CSMA). A multiple access method makes it possible
for several transmitters connected to the same physical
medium to share its capacity.
 Types of Multiplexing
The group of multiplexing technologies may be divided into
several types, all of which have significant variations. Here
are some of them;
Space Division Multiplexing (SDM)
Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Types of Multiplexing
Multiplexing Hierarchies
 Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH)
PDH or the Plesiochronous digital hierarchy is a popular technology that is
widely used in the networks of telecommunication in order to transport the
huge amounts of data over the digital equipment for transportation like
microwave radio or fiber optic systems.
PDH helps in proper transmission of the data that generally runs at the
similar rate but allows some slight variation in the speed than the nominal
rate. The basic transfer rate of the data is 2048 kilobits per second. For
instance, in each speech transmission, the normal rate breaks into different
thirty channels of 64 kilobits per second along with two different 64 kilobits
per second in order to perform the tasks of synchronization and signaling.
The weaknesses that PDH faced paved way for the introduction and use of
the SDH systems. Although the PDH proved to be a breakthrough in the
field of digital transmission, the weaknesses that made it less demanded
includes:
Asynchronous structure that is rigid.
Restricted management capacity.
Non availability of world standard on the digital formats.
No optical interfaces world standard and without an optical level,
networking is not possible.
PDH, if we talk as n x E1 G.703 lines to be transmitted, can be developed
only up to 16 E1 lines
 Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy
In the European system, the E1 signal constitutes the first level of a
hierarchy of signals that are each formed by successively carrying out
the TDM multiplexing of 4 lower level signals. This way we obtain
signals with the following formats: E2 (8.448 Mbit/s), E3 (34.368 Mbit/s)
and E4 (139.264 Mbit/s). A fifth level, E5 (565.148 Mbit/s)m was also
defined but in the end was not standardized. This digital multiplexing
hierarchy is the European version of what is known as Plesiochronous
Digital Hierarchy or PDH.
 Higher Hierarchical Levels
As is the case with level 1 of the Plesiochronous digital hierarchy (2
Mbit/s), the higher levels also use a frame structure that begins with a
frame alignment signal (FAS), with the difference that, at these levels,
multiplexing is carried out bit-by-bit (unlike the multiplexing of 64 kbit/s
channels in a 2 Mbit/s signal, which is byte-by-byte), thus making it
impossible to identify the lower level frames inside a higher level frame.
 Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)
Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET) or Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
(SDH) are standardized multiplexing protocols that transfer multiple digital
bit streams over optical fiber using lasers or light-emitting diodes (LEDs).
Lower rates can also be transferred via an electrical interface. The method
was developed to replace the Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH)
system for transporting larger amounts of telephone calls and data traffic
over the same fiber wire without synchronization problems.
Both SDH and SONET are widely used today. SONET in the U.S. and Canada
and SDH in the rest of the world.
Synchronous networking differs from Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH)
in that the exact rates that are used to transport the data are tightly
synchronized across the entire network, using atomic clocks. This
synchronization system allows entire inter-country networks to operate
synchronously, greatly reducing the amount of buffering required between
elements in the network.
The basic unit of framing in SDH is a STM-1 (Synchronous Transport Module
level 1), which operates at 155.52 Mbps.
The STM-1 (synchronous transport module level - 1) frame is the basic
transmission format for SDH or the fundamental frame or the first level of
the synchronous digital hierarchy. The STM-1 frame is transmitted in
exactly 125 microseconds, therefore there are 8000 frames per second on a
fiber-optic circuit designated OC-3 (Optical Carrier-3).
 Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)
The STM frame is continuous and is transmitted in a serial fashion, byte-by-
byte, row-by-row.
STM1 frame contains
1 octet = 8 bit
Total content: 9 x 270 octets = 2430 octets
overhead: 8 rows x 9 octets
pointers: 1 row x 9 octets
payload: 9 rows x 261 octets
Period: 125 sec
Bit rate: 155.520 Mbps (2430 octets x 8 bits x 8000 frame/s )or 270*9*64Kbps:
155.52Mbps
Actual payload capacity: 150.336 Mbps (2349 x 8 bits x 8000 frame/s)
The transmission of the frame is done row by row, from the left to right and
top to bottom.
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)

SDH STM1 Frame

Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)
SDH/ SONET Data Rates
 E-Carrier System
In digital telecommunications, where a single physical wire pair can be used to
carry many simultaneous voice conversations by time-division multiplexing,
worldwide standards have been created and deployed. E1 is such carrier
system.
E1 circuits are very common in most telephone exchanges and are used to
connect to medium and large companies, to remote exchanges and in many
cases between exchanges.
An E1 link operates over two separate sets of wires, usually twisted pair cable.
A nominal 3 Volt peak signal is encoded with pulses using a method that
avoids long periods without polarity changes. The line data rate is 2.048
Mbit/s (full duplex, i.e. 2.048 Mbit/s downstream and 2.048 Mbit/s upstream)
which is split into 32 timeslots, each being allocated 8 bits in turn. Thus each
timeslot sends and receives an 8-bit PCM sample, usually encoded according
to A-law algorithm, 8000 times per second (8 x 8000 x 32 = 2,048,000). This
is ideal for voice telephone calls where the voice is sampled into an 8 bit
number at that data rate and reconstructed at the other end. The timeslots
are numbered from 0 to 31.
One timeslot (TS0) is reserved for framing purposes, and alternately transmits
a fixed pattern. This allows the receiver to lock onto the start of each frame
and match up each channel in turn. The standards allow for a full Cyclic
Redundancy Check to be performed across all bits transmitted in each frame,
to detect if the circuit is losing bits (information), but this is not always used.
 E-Carrier System
One timeslot (TS16) is often reserved for signaling purposes, to control
call setup and teardown according to one of several standard
telecommunications protocols. This includes Channel Associated
Signaling (CAS) where a set of bits is used to replicate opening and
closing the circuit (as if picking up the telephone receiver and pulsing
digits on a rotary phone), or using tone signaling which is passed
through on the voice circuits themselves. More recent systems used
Common Channel Signaling (CCS) such as ISDN or Signaling System 7
(SS7) which send short encoded messages with more information
about the call including caller ID, type of transmission required etc.
ISDN is often used between the local telephone exchange and business
premises, whilst SS7 is almost exclusively used between exchanges
and operators.
Unlike the earlier T-carrier systems developed in North America, all 8
bits of each sample are available for each call. This allows the E1
systems to be used equally well for circuit switch data calls, without
risking the loss of any information.
E-Carrier System
 E-Carrier Hierarchy Levels
The PDH based on the E0 signal rate is designed so that each higher
level can multiplex a set of lower level signals. Framed E1 is designed
to carry 30 E0 data channels + 1 signaling channel, all other levels are
designed to carry 4 signals from the level below. Because of the
necessity for overhead bits, and justification bits to account for rate
differences between sections of the network, each subsequent level has
a capacity greater than would be expected from simply multiplying the
lower level signal rate (so for example E2 is 8.448 Mbit/s and not 8.192
Mbit/s as one might expect when multiplying the E1 rate by 4).
Note, because bit interleaving is used, it is very difficult to demultiplex
low level tributaries directly, requiring equipment to individually
demultiplex every single level down to the one that is required.
 What does NEC IDU do?!
NEC IDU is packaged & integrated with
circuitry that enables it to do the following;
a. Modulation/ Demodulation
b. Multiplexing/ De-Multiplexing
c. Switching Functionality
 PASOLINK V4 IDU (1/3)
2 3 4 5 6 7
1 8

1. IF connector (to
2. 2MbpsODU)
interface (CH 9 to CH 16): impedance selector switch
(75 or 120
3. LAN Interface for main traffic: Portohms)
1 and Port 2
4. WS/LAN: optional (Optional)
port for Wayside In/Out
or 10BaseT
5. NMS LAN: for PNMS with LAN
6. Engineersinterface
Orderwire (EOW): receptacle for
EOW headset
7. CALL: call buzzer for calling the opposite site of the
transmission path
8. RESET: CPU reset switch for IDU
 PASOLINK V4 IDU
(2/3)

10 11 12 13
9
9. LED: PWR : that the power switch is on (Green)
MAINT: for the purpose of maintenance (Yellow)
ODU : that the ODU alarms occur (Red)
IDU : that the IDU alarms occur (Red)
10. FG : connecting Frame Ground terminal
11. ESD: Connecting terminal for Electro Static Discharge
12. 2Mbps interface (CH 1 to CH 8) ): impedance selector switch (75 or 120 ohms)
13. ALM/AUX ALM: connector for parallel alarms (relay contact) connector for Data
Input / Data Output
 PASOLINK V4 IDU
(3/3)

14 15 16 17 18 19
14. OW / DSC / ASC
(1) Order wire
(2) Digital and Analog (VF) service channel

15. NMS / RA: for PNMS or remote access Local Craft Terminal (None PM Card)
16. LA Port: connector to PC for local access Local Craft Terminal or PNMT

17. Fuse: for primary DC line (be inserted in each plus and minus line)

18. 20SW : power switch

19. DC IN: connector for DC power in.

 What does NEC ODU do?!
NEC ODU is packaged & integrated with
circuitry that enables it to do the following;
a. Conversion of IF (from IDU) to much higher
Frequency for Transmission
b. Conversion of the Received Signal frequency
to IF for IDU to work upon
c. Direct reading of the Received Signal Power
Level
 Rear Side Front Side

IF connector to IDU RX LEV MON RF interface to Antenna( PBR220)

The signal is transmitted by a radio broadcast
tower.

Base station Room Micro wave antennas Radio wave antennas

Radio Signal Propagation
 Point-to-Point Microwave Connection

HOP A radio-link connection with a pair of communicating terminals

 Gain of antenna

G0 10 lg[0.6(D / ) 2 ]

D: Diameter
: Wavelength

More the Diameter, more is the Gain of Antenna.

More the Diameter, more is the distance we can achieve in a
hop.
FSL = Free space loss (dB)

FSL = 92.4 + 20 lg D + 20 lg F
FSL = Free Space Loss
D = Path Length in kilometers
F = Radio Frequency in Gigahertz

D Km F GHz
 Basic concept
Free Space Basic Transmission Loss
GTX GRX
P = TX Power
G = Antenna Gain
Power
Level A0 = Free Space Loss

M = Fading Margin

PTX
A0
PRX

Receiver Threshold

Distance
System Characteristics
Example
EIRP = Pout - Ct + Gt = 16 dBm

Pl = 92.4 + 20xLog F(GHz) + 20xLog R(Km)

Si = EIRP - Pl + Gr - Cr = -82 dBm
 Frequency Carries/ Channels
The information from sender to receiver is carrier
over a well defined frequency band.
This is called a channel

Each channel has a fixed frequency bandwidth (in

KHz) and Capacity (bit-rate)

Different frequency bands (channels) can be used

to transmit information in parallel and
independently.
 Tx/ Rx Space & High/ Low Site
Tx/ Rx space
Determined by the state.
Different frequency has different Tx/ Rx Space.

High/ Low site

High site: Transmit Frequency is higher than Receive
Frequency.
Low site: Transmit Frequency is lower than Receive
Frequency.

Note: High Site and Low Site are forbidden at one BTS Site.
 Link Budget Calculations
Weather conditions (Rain, wind, etc.)

At high rain intensity (150 mm/hr), the fading of an RF

signal at 2.4 Ghz may reach a maximum of 0.02 dB/Km.
Wind may cause fading due to antenna motion.

Interference:
Interference may be caused by another system on the
same frequency range, external noise, or some other co-
located system.
 The Line of Sight Concept
An optical line of sight exists if an imaginary straight line
can be drawn connecting the antennas on either side of
the link.

Clear Line of Sight

A clear line of sight exists when no physical objects obstruct
viewing one antenna from the location of the other antenna. A
radio wave clear line of sight exists if a defined area round the
optical line of sight (Fresnel Zone) is clear of obstacles.
Fresnel Zone
Fresnel Zone clear of obstacles
 Polarization

- The time varying direction and amplitude of the electric field vector of the
electromagnetic (radio) wave
- Point- to- point microwave paths can be either vertically or horizontally
polarized
- Vertical to horizontal isolation is about 30 dB

E
E

Vertical polarization Horizontal polarization

The polarization must be identical in one hop!

Vertically Polarized
Waveguide
Horizontally Polarized
Waveguide
Vertical polarization
Horizontal polarization