DAC, Diodes, Triacs

ME 6405 Intro to Mechatronics

Student Lecture

Kevin Johnson
Minh Vo
Lam Duong
Wye-Chi Chok
 Kevin Johnson

Outline
DAC
What is a DAC?
Types of DAC
Specifications
Diodes
What are diodes?
P-N Junction Diode
Real vs. Ideal
Types of Diodes & Applications
Triacs
What are thyristors?
What are triacs?
Applications
 Kevin Johnson

Principal components of DAC

 Kevin Johnson

What is a DAC?
Convert digital signal (number) to
analog signal (voltage or current)

Either multiplying or non-multiplying

Non-multiplying contains its own
reference
Multiplying takes external reference.

Two main types: ladder and delta-

sigma
 Kevin Johnson

DAC ideal output.

Each binary number sampled by the DAC
corresponds to a different output level.
Analog Output Signal

0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011
Digital Input Signal
 Kevin Johnson

DAC real output.

DACs capture a number and hold that value
for a given sample interval. This is known
as a zero-order hold and results in a
piecewise constant output.

DAC

Ideally Sampled Signal Output typical of a real, practical

DAC due to sample & hold
 Kevin Johnson

Smoothing

Used when a continuous analog

signal is required.
Signal from DAC can be smoothed by
a Low pass filter

Piece-wise Analog
Digital Input Continuous Output Continuous Output
0 bit

011010010101010100101
101010101011111100101
000010101010111110011
010101010101010101010
n bit DAC Filter
111010101011110011000
100101010101010001111

nth bit
 Kevin Johnson

Applications.
Audio/Video Signal Generators
MP3 players Sine wave generation
Square wave generation
Cellphones
Triangle wave generation
Television Random noise generation
(well, old ones)

Motor, valve, actuator

Rarely; usually PWM.
 Types of DAC
Kevin Johnson

implementations
Binary Weighted Resistor
R-2R Ladder
Pulse Width Modulator (not covered)
Oversampling DAC, aka Delta Sigma
(used internally in HCS12)
 Kevin Johnson

Binary Weighted Resistor

Assume
binary
B5 inputs B0
(LSB) to Bn-1
B4 (MSB)
B3 Each Bi is 1
or 0 and is
B2 multiplied
by Vref to
B1
get input
B0 voltage

Bn 1 Bn 2 B1 B0
Vout IRf Rf Vref ... n 2 n-1
R 2R 2 R 2 R
 Kevin Johnson

Binary weight theory

Need to fill jars
to a specific
level using set
of measuring
cups.
Cups are , ,
1/8, 1/16, etc.

http://www.msbtech.com/support/How_DACs_Work.php
 Kevin Johnson

BWR Pros and Cons

Advantages
Simple
Fast
Disadvantages
Need large range of resistor values (2048:1 for
12-bit) with high precision in low resistor values
Need very small switch resistances
Op-amp may have trouble producing low
currents at the low range of a high precision
DAC
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R-2R ladder basic circuit

Equivalent resistance to ground at each top node is R.

At each node, current gets split in two.
Since nodes are cascaded, currents are , , 1/8, etc.
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R-2R Ladder results

Final result is:
Rf n 1
Bi
Vout Vref
R i 0 2 n i
Assuming Rf = R (and ignoring negative)

Resolution is smallest step: i.e. B=1 in above

equation.
 Kevin Johnson

R-2R Ladder
Advantages:
Only 2 resistor values
Lower precision resistors acceptable
Disadvantages
Slightly slower conversion rate
Op-amp must still handle very small
currents at high bit numbers.
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Delta-sigma DAC
Now all cups are
the same size (or
more precisely, he
uses the same cup
over and over).
Cup size is
1/(2^n).
He must add this
amount the proper
number of times
(pulse-count
modulation).

http://www.msbtech.com/support/How_DACs_Work.php
 Kevin Johnson

Delta-sigma Pros and Cons

Pros:
Very accurate
High bit-depth possible
Reduced aliasing
Cons:
Requires very fast oversampling clock.
At least 2^n times faster than sampling rate
Complicated
Sensitive to clock jitter
 Kevin Johnson

General comments
Circuits as shown produce only
unipolar output
Replacing ground with Vref will
allow Vout to be positive or
negative
 Minh Vo

Specifications of a DAC
Reference Voltage
Resolution
Sampling Rate
Settling Time
Linearity
Errors
 Minh Vo

Reference Voltage Vref

Determines the output voltage range
Non-multiplying DAC
Fixed Vref set internally by manufacturer
Multiplying DAC
Vref is set externally and can be vary during
operation
Full-scale voltage Vfs
Voltage when all digital inputs are 1s

Vref (2 N 1)
Vfs N
2
 Minh Vo

Resolution
The resolution is the amount of output
voltage change in response to a least
significant bit (LSB) transition.

Vref
Resolution N VLSB
2
Smaller resolution results in a smoother
output
A common DAC has a 8 - 16 bit resolution
 Minh Vo

Sampling Rate fsampling

Rate of conversion of a single digital
input to its analog equivalent
When the input changes rapidly, fmax,
the DAC conversion speed must be
high f sampling 2 f max
Nyquist Criterion:
Limited by the clock speed of the input
signal and the settling time of the DAC
 Minh Vo

Settling Time
DAC needs time to reach the actual
expected analog output voltage
The time required for the output
voltage to settle within +/- of VLSB
of the expected voltage
 Minh Vo

Linearity
The difference between the desired
analog output and the actual output
over the full range of expected values
Linear (Ideal) Non-Linear
 Minh Vo

Errors
Gain Error
Offset Error
Full Scale Error
Non Linearity
Non-Monotonic
Resolution Errors
Settling Time and Overshoot
 Minh Vo

Gain Error
Deviation in the slope of the ideal
curve and with respect to the actual
DAC
High Gain output
Error: Step
amplitude is higher than
the desired output
Low Gain Error: Step
amplitude is lower than
the desired output

Gain Error is adjustable

to zero using an
external potentiometer
 Minh Vo

Offset Error
Occurs when there is an offset in the
output voltage in reference to the
ideal output
This error may be
detected when all
input bits are low
(i.e. 0).
 Minh Vo

Full Scale Error

Combination of gain and offset error
 Minh Vo

Differential Non-Linearity
Voltage step size changes vary with
as digital input increases. Ideally
each step should be equivalent.
 Minh Vo

Integral Non-Linearity
Occurs when the output voltage is
non linear. Basically an inability to
adhere to the ideal slope.
 Minh Vo

Non-Monotonic
Occurs when the an increase in
digital input results in a lower output
voltage.
 Minh Vo

Resolution Errors
Does not accurately approximate the
desired output due large voltage
divisions.
 Settling Time and
Minh Vo

Overshoot
Any change in the input time will not
be reflected immediately due to the
lag time.
Overshoot occurs when the output
voltage overshoots the desired
analog output voltage.
 Lam Duong

What is a Diode?
A diode is a two terminal electric component
which conducts current more easily in one
direction than in the opposite direction.
The most common usage of a diode is as an
electronic valve which allows current to flow in
one direction but not the opposite direction.
 Lam Duong

A bit of history
Diodes were known as rectifiers
until 1919, when a physicist by the
name of William Eccles coined the
term diode, which from its Greek
roots means through-path.
In 1873 Fredrick Guthrie discovered
thermionic diodes (vacuum tube
diodes) . Heating the cathode in
forward bias permitted electrons to
be transmitted into the vacuum,
but in reverse bias the electrons
were not easily release from the
unheated anode.
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 Lam Duong

A bit of history
In 1874 Karl Braun discovered
the first solid state diode
(crystal diode). It consists of
using Galena crystals as the
semiconducting material.
In 1939 Russell Ohl discovered
the first P-N junction at Bell
Labs.
Today, the majority of diodes are
made of semiconductor silicon
P-N junctions.

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 Lam Duong

P-N Junction Diode

A P-N junction diode consists of a
Majority carriers
p-type semiconductor (silicon)
joined with an n-type
p n
semiconductor.
P-type A semiconductor doped
with impurities to create positive
Depletion Region
charge carriers (holes).
N-type A semiconductor doped
with impurities to create negative
charged carriers.
A depletion region is created
when negative charge carriers
from the N-type region diffuse into
the P-type region, and vice versa. 37
 Lam Duong

P-N Junction Diode

Depletion Region
The behavior of a diode depends
upon the polarity of the supply
voltage. p n
if
Under forward bias the depletion
region is reduced in size and less
energy is required for the charged
majority carriers to cross the
depletion region. Forward Biased

This decrease in energy

requirement results in more
charged majority carriers to cross
the depletion region which induces
a current.
 Lam Duong
P-N Junction Diode
Under reverse bias the Depletion Region

depletion region is greatly p n ir

increased in size and requires
significantly more energy
V
from the majority carriers in
order to cross.
Reverse Biased
Most majority carriers wont
be able to cross the depletion
region and thus are unable to
induce a current.
 Lam Duong
Real vs. Ideal
Ideal P-N Diode no resistance to current I
in forward bias and infinite resistance in
reverse bias. (Similar to a switch)
conduction
In reality there is resistance to current region
flow in forward bias. It requires a certain V
voltage to be reached before the non-conduction
depletion region is eliminated and full region
current flow is permitted. Ideal Curve
Likewise, in reverse bias there is a small
reverse (leakage) current induced by the
flow of minority carriers. At a certain
voltage (break down voltage) the reverse
current will increase significantly. This is
called the Avalanche current.
 Lam Duong

Schottky Diode
Unlike P-N junction diodes, Schottky diodes
are based on a metal and semiconductor
junction.
An advantage of Schottky diodes over P-N
junction diodes is that Schottky diodes have
no recovery time when switching from
conducting to non-conducting state and
vice versa.
The main disadvantage of Schottky diodes
are that they operate in low voltage Metal N-Type
compare to P-N junction diodes (up to 50V).
Another significant difference is that the
on-voltage for a Schottky diode is around .
3V while it is .7V for a P-N junction diode.
 Lam Duong

Flyback Diode
Schottky diodes are often used as Flyback
diodes due to their quick recovery and low
forward voltage drop.
A Flyback diode is a diode used to eliminate
the sudden voltage spike that occurs across
an indicutive load when voltage is abruptly
reduced or removed.
Lenzs law - if the current through an
inductance changes, this inductance
induces a voltage so the current will go on
flowing as long as there is energy in the
magnetic field.
Flyback diodes are important in
mechatronics applications where one may
want to vary the voltage of an inductive load
to control its operation.
 Lam Duong

Other Types of Diodes

Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) - A diode
formed from a semiconductor such as
gallium arsenide, carriers that cross the
junction emit photons when they recombine
with the majority carrier on the other side.
Photodiode Exploits the fact that all
semiconductors are subject to charged
carrier generation when they are exposed to
light. Photodiodes are often used to sense
light such as in an Opto-isolator.
Zener Diode Allows current in forward bias
like a regular diode, but also in reverse bias
if the voltage is larger than designed
voltage, called the Breakdown voltage.
 Wye-Chi Chok

What are TRIACS?

In order to know, we must first

look at thyristors

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 Wye-Chi Chok
What are Thyristors?
Class of semiconductor components that
can only go in 1 direction.
Wide range of devices, SCR (silicon
controlled rectifier), SCS (silicon
controlled switch), Diacs, Triacs, and
Shockley diodes
Used in high power switching applications
i.e. hundreds of amps / thousands of
watts

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 Wye-Chi Chok

How do Thyristors work?

PNPN (4-layer) device:
PNP and NPN transistor back-to-back.
With forward voltage, small gate
current pulse turns on device.
once on, each transistor supplies gate
current for the other, so no need for gate
input
only way to turn it off is to stop current (i.e.
bring voltage to zero)
 Wye-Chi Chok

Thyristors contd.

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 Wye-Chi Chok

now then, what are TRIACS?

A TRIAC (TRIode for Alternating Current)
is a 3-terminal AC semiconductor switch.
Composed of 2 thyristors facing opposite
directions such that it can conduct
current in either direction.
MT1 and MT2 are current carrying
terminals while the Gate terminal is used
for triggering by applying a small
voltage signal.
Once triggered, it continues to conduct
current until the current falls below a
threshold value.
 Wye-Chi Chok

Triac Operation
5 layer device
Region between MT1 and MT2 are parallel switches (PNPN and NPNP)
Allows for positive or negative gate triggering
 Wye-Chi Chok

Triac Characteristic Curve

 Wye-Chi Chok

Triac Characteristic Curve

o 1st quadrant - MT2 is (+) with respect to
MT1
o VDRM is the break-over voltage of the Triac
and the highest voltage that can be blocked
o IRDM is the leakage current of the Triac when
VDRM is applied to MT1 and MT2
o IRDM is several orders of magnitude smaller
than the on rating
 Wye-Chi Chok

Triacs
Pros:
Better than a transistor as it has much better current
surge rating it can handle more current as it simply
turns on more
Inexpensive compared to relays
Cons:
Can't manually control turn-off with the gate; must turn
off by stopping current through the device via the
terminals.
Specs to buy one:
Gate signal requirements
Voltage drop
Steady-state/holding current (continuously handle)
Peak current (maximum amount to handle surge)
 Wye-Chi Chok

Triac Applications
High Power TRIACS
Switching for AC circuits, allowing the control
of very large power flows with milliampere-
scale control currents
Can eliminate mechanical wear in a relay

Low Power TRIACS

Light bulb dimmers (done by applying power
later in the AC cycle aka PWM of AC wave)
Motor speed controls for electric fans and
other AC motors, and heaters
Modern computerized control circuits in
household appliances 53
 Wye-Chi Chok

Triac Applications

Simple Triac Switch

Small control
current/voltage
Eliminates
Mechanical wear in
a Relay
Much Cheaper
 Wye-Chi Chok

Real World Triacs

Come in various
shapes and sizes
Essentially all
the same
operationally
Different
mounting
schemes
QUESTIONS?

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