ADIGRAT UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT

BASIC ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Course Code: (ChEg 3161)

1
 Chapter 1-Introduction

Contents
Definition of terms: Environment, Environmental
Engineering

Impacts of Human on Environment

Impacts of Environment on Human being

Waste management Strategies

Role of Environmental Engineer

2
 Introduction

Environment
The Environmental Protection Act, USA (1986) defines
environment as environment that includes water, air,
and land; fauna/group of animals and human being,
flora/plant life and property.
The natural environment can be classified in to the
biological environment (all living things) and physical
environment (land, air and water).
3
 Environment..

The physical environment consists of

Atmosphere- the gaseous region that surrounds

the earth

Hydrosphere- the aqueous environment of the

earth consists of the oceans, the lakes and streams, and
the shallow, ground water bodies that inflow with the
surface water.

Lithosphere- the solid part of the earth composed

of rocks and soil.

The biosphere is made up of the atmosphere and

4
Contd
It is within the biosphere that the life forms of earth,
including humans, live.
Life- sustaining materials in gaseous, liquid, and solid
forms are cycled through the biosphere, providing
sustenance to all living organisms.
Life-sustaining resources-air, food, and water-are
withdrawn from the biosphere. It is also in to the
biosphere that waste products gaseous, liquid and solid
forms are discharged.
5
 Human impacts on the environment
Natural needs

needs for unprocessed resources; air, water , food & shelter

these natural, unprocessed resources were readily available in

the biosphere

the residues generated by the use of such resources were

generally compatible with, or readily assimilated by, the
environment
Acquired needs

needs for usually processed, manufactured or refined products

Large waste generation during production and consumption

More complex residues, usually not compatible or readily

assimilative capacity of the environment. 6
 Impacts of Environment on Human Being

Health Concerns

Elements of the air, the water and the land may host
harmful biological and chemical agents that impact the
health of humans

Animal transmitted and water born diseases

Air pollution
Chemical Contaminations

7
Other Concerns
o Loss of aesthetic/ beautiful and cultural heritages, e.g.

Reduced clean air and water bodies: lakes, rivers,

and streams

Displeasing effect of improper solid-waste disposal

techniques

Damages to cultural properties

o Economic damages, e.g.

Loss of fishes in polluted water bodies

8
 Environmental Engineering

The application of science and engineering principles to the

environment .

(Wikipedia)
Branch of engineering that is concerned with protecting the
environment from the potentially harmful effects of human
activity, protecting human populations from the effects of adverse
environmental factors, and improving environmental quality for
human health and well-being.
(Peavy et al,
1985)
9
Environmental Engineering
-Synthesis of various disciplines, incorporates elements
from

Biology Geography

Ecology Hydrogeology

Chemistry Public health

Chemical Engineering Water supply treatment

Civil Engineering Wastewater management

Agricultural Engineering Solid waste management

Geology Hazardous waste

management
10
statistics
 Role of Environmental Engineer
Assesses the likely response of the environment to various
levels of contaminant loadings
Evaluate the various technical solutions that may be
proposed
Plans, designs, executes, operates and maintains treatment
facilities for water, air and solid waste.
E.g the environmental engineer could be involved directly
in the design of a solid waste processing plant for Adigrat
city, or
The addition of treatment facility to remove contaminants
11
from the influent to a certain lake
Industrial pollution & control strategies (Waste
management strategies)

end-of-pipe approach
put more emphasis on reactive environmental management
practices
o Deals on designing waste treatment plants and installing
pollution control equipment to prevent contamination of the
environment
o Focus on containing or cleaning up pollution after it was
generated
Shifts waste from one environment medium (air, water, land)
12
to another
 Integrated waste management approach
o Also known as integrated pollution prevention and
control (IPPC) approach
o Puts more emphasis on pro-active environmental
management practices
Integrates pollution prevention, source reduction,
reuse/recycling, and treatment
Disposal or other release in to the environment should
be employed only as a last resort
Encourages method of production that generate less
waste and fewer emissions than traditional industrial
13
processes
 Material/Energy flow in the two approaches

disposal treatment recycling

prevention reuse

End-of-pipe
approach 14
 Contd

Prevention
(source reuse recycle
reduction)

disposal treatment

IPPC approach
15
 Chapter 2- Water pollution
Contents

introduction

water quality standards and parameters

water pollutants and their sources

elements of aquatic ecology

aerobic and anaerobic decomposition

dissolved oxygen and biochemical demands in

streams

water quality in lakes

16
 Expectations
o At the end of the chapter, the students will be able to:

Define terms: water quality, water pollution, water

pollutant, water quality parameters and standards, etc

Explain sources of water pollution and their effects

Explain ecosystem and ecology

Explain the effects of pollution in streams/rivers and

familiarize with mathematical water quality modeling in
streams

Explain effects of pollution on lakes

17
 Introduction
Water sources
Surface sources
-

Surface water systems are waters naturally open to the atmosphere,

such as rivers, lakes, reservoirs, estuaries (section of a river meeting
the sea), and coastal waters
-Subsurface or underground sources
Include such as springs, wells (open and tube wells), etc
Water use
-Abstraction use: such as domestic, agricultural, industrial
-In-stream use: such as biological exploitation, power generation,
transportation, waste transportation, swimming, etc
Factors such as increasing population, urbanization, industrialization,
intensification of agriculture affects water demands
18
 Water quality parameters
o Water quality

-Refers to the suitability of water to sustain various uses or

processes

-It is the value judgment of the water with respect to particular use
o How can we measure water quality?

-Physico-chemical indicators of water quality: involves

measurement of the concentrations of different physical and
chemicals constituents that it contains.

-Biological indicators of water quality: involves the examination of

the fish, insects and other invertebrates that the water will
support
19
 Characteristics of Water/Wastewater

Physical Characteristics:
define those characteristics of water/ wastewater that responds
to the senses of sight, touch, taste, or smell

-Temperature: is not used to evaluate directly either potable

water or wastewater.
It is, however, one of the most important parameters in natural
surface water system. The temperature of surface waters
governs to a large extent the biological species present and their
rates of activity.
Cooler waters usually have a wider diversity of biological species.
At lower temperatures, the rate of biological activity, i.e;
utilization of food supplies, growth, reproduction etc. is slower.
20

Contd

If the temperature is increased, biological activity increases. An

increase ofC is usually sufficient to double the biological activity, if

essential nutrients are available.

At elevated temperatures and increased metabolic rates, organisms

that are more efficient at food utilization and reproduction flourish,

while other species decline and perhaps eliminated altogether.

Higher-order species, such as fish, are affected dramatically by

temperature and by dissolved oxygen levels, which are a function of

temperature. Game fish usually require cooler temperature and high

dissolved oxygen levels.

The solubility of gases, on the other hand, decreases at elevated T.

21
 Contd

color, taste and odor: are important measurements for

determining drinking water quality. Along with turbidity
color, taste and odor are important from the stand point of
aesthetics.
color, taste and odor in drinking water are often caused by
organic substances such as algae or by dissolved
substances such as iron.

-Turbidity-water that is not clear, but is dirty in the sense

that light transmission is inhibited is known as turbid water.
Many material can cause turbidity, including clays and
other tiny inorganic particles, algae, and organic matter.
22
 Chemical Characteristics
oWater has been called the universal solvent, and chemical

parameters are related to the solvent capabilities of water.

pH: the pH of a solution is a measure of hydrogen () ion

concentration, which is, in turn the measure of acidity.

Pure water dissociates slightly in to equal concentrations of

hydrogen and hydroxyl() ions:

O +

oAn excess of hydrogen ions makes a solution acidic, where as a

dearth of ions or excess of hydroxyl ions, makes it basic.

oThe equilibrium constant for this reaction, Kw, is the product of

23
concentrations and is equal to .
 Contd

This relationship may be expressed as:
]=Kw=
o In pure water and ] are in equal concentrations.

=]=moles/l
o Alkalinity- measures the buffering capacity of the
water against changes in pH.
o Water that has high alkalinity can accept large doses of
acids or bases without altering the pH significantly.
o Waters with low alkalinity, such as rain water or distilled
water, can experience a drop in the pH with only a
minor addition of an acid or base. 24

Total dissolved solids

the material remaining in the water after filtration for

the suspended-solids analysis is considered to be
dissolved.

this material is left as a solid residue upon evaporation

of the water and constitutes a part of total solids
Hardness

is a measure of the total concentration of ions.

soap consumption by hard water represents an

economic loss to the water user.
it causes soaps and detergents to be less effective 25

Dissolved oxygen:
one of the most important measures of water quality.

Without free dissolved oxygen, streams and lakes

become uninhabitable to aerobic organisms, including
fish and invertebrates.
Dissolved oxygen is inversely proportional to
temperature, and the maximum amount of oxygen that
can be dissolved in water at C is 14.6mg/l.
The saturation value decreases rapidly with increasing
water temperature.
26
27
 Water Quality Standards For Different Uses
Set of requirements regarding the quality of water to be used

Related to measurements/concentrations/ of water quality

parameters
Standards for water pollution control can be based either

on the quality required in the receiving water (the water

quality objective or WQO approach), or

they can be applied directly to the discharge without

reference to the conditions relating to the receiving water (the
emission standard approach). Or the quality required in the
discharge water

28
 Water Pollution: is defined as the alteration/change of
the quality of a receiving water body in such a manner as
to make it unfit for some intended use.
any change in the inherent physical, chemical or biological
characteristics of receiving water due to the presence of
(solid, liquid or gaseous) substances in as much quantity
as to make it harmful to public health or environment.
Signs of water pollution includes

Bad taste of drinking water

Offensive odour
Presence of floating materials
Decrease the number of aquatic fauna and flora 29
 Sources of Water Pollution

Point Sources:
emit pollutants from identifiable or known locations.

E.g. discharge from factories, wastewater treatment

plants, landfills, underground storage tanks etc.

Non-Point Sources:
pollutants are emitted from diffused/wide areas

E.g. Runoffs from agricultural lands, paved surfaces

and storm drains, precipitation, etc.

30
 Why Water Pollution is an issue?

The available fresh water on the planet is scarce (<1%)

Our demand for water for drinking, irrigation, industrial

and other purposes increases.
Water pollution continues to become an even more
serious problem each year.
The quantity of available water has become a major
global issue.

31
 Types of pollutants
Oxygen demanding wastes: mainly organic wastes from
different sources. Such as might be discharged from milk
processing plants, breweries, or paper mills, as well as
municipal wastewater treatment plants, compose one of
the most important types of pollutants because these
materials decompose in the watercourse and can deplete
the water dissolved oxygen.

Sediments and suspended solids: may also be

classified as a pollutant. Sediments consists of mostly
inorganic material washed in to a stream as a result of land
cultivation, construction, demolition and mining operations.
32
Contd

Nutrients mainly N & P can promote accelerated

eutrophication , or, the rapid biological aging of lakes &

streams.

P & N are common pollutants in residential and agricultural

runoffs and are usually associated with plant debris, animal

wastes or fertilizer.

Heat- may be classified as a water pollutant when it is caused

by heated industrial effluents or from anthropogenic (human)

alteration of stream bank vegetation that increase the stream

temperature due to solar radiation 33

 Heated effluents lower the solubility of oxygen in the water
because gas solubility in water is inversely proportional to
temperature, thereby reducing the amount of dissolved
oxygen available to aerobic (oxygen dependent) species.
Heat also increases the metabolic rate of aquatic organisms
(unless the water temperature gets too high and kill the
organism), which further reduces the amount of dissolved
oxygen because respiration increases.
Pathogenic microbes- such as harmful bacteria and viruses
from excretes of diseased persons or animals.
Toxic chemical wastes- such as heavy metals and organic
chemicals including pesticides, solvents, oil and greases
34
 Effects of Pollution
o Human Health Problems

illness such as dysentery, typhoid, cholera, etc. result from

ingesting water contaminated with harmful microbes.

Skin rashes to various cancers and birth defects due to

drinking of water containing chemical such as DDT, dioxins,
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and heavy metals.
o Ecosystem damage

Eutrophication-due to excess release of nutrients (mainly

phosphorus and nitrogen compounds).

Dissolved oxygen depletion

Loss or reduced aquatic and terrestrial life 35

 Biodegradation
Many organic materials responsible for water pollution enter water
courses at a high energy level

The biodegradation or gradual use of energy, of the compounds

by a chain of organisms causes many water pollution problems.

Fig. Energy loss in biodegradation

36
 Aerobic and Anaerobic biodegradation
Decomposition or biodegradation may take place in one of two

distinctly different ways: aerobic(using free oxygen) and anaerobic (in

the absence of free oxygen)

Aerobic Biodegradation: biological decomposition of complex

organic compounds in the presence of oxygen.

The basic equation for aerobic biodegradation or decomposition of

complex organic compounds is:

CO2 & H2O are always two of the end products of aerobic

decomposition. Both are stable, low in energy, and used by plants for

photosynthesis (plant photosynthesis is a major CO2 sink for the

37
earth).
 Contd

The biological respiration or decomposition of glucose under

aerobic conditions would result in the release of CO2, H2O and

energy that can be used for metabolism.

Nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur compounds are often included in

the general discussion of decomposition because the breakdown

and release of these compounds during decomposition of organic

matter can contribute to water quality problems.

A schematic representation of the aerobic cycle for C, N, S and P

is shown in the figure.

38
39
Anaerobic decomposition: is usually performed by a
completely different set of microorganisms, to which oxygen
even be toxic. (MO that can only survive in anaerobic
environments are called obligate anaerobes; facultative
anaerobes can survive in aerobic or anaerobic environments.

The basic equation for anaerobic decomposition is:

Many of the end products of anaerobic decomposition are

biologically unstable.

Methane (CH4), is a high-energy gas commonly called

marsh gas (or natural gas when burned as fuel)

Although it can be oxidized and used as energy source

40
(food) by a variety of anaerobic bacteria.
 Ammonia (NH3) can also be oxidized by aerobic
bacteria or used by plants as a nutrient
Sulfur is anaerobically biodegradable to evil smelling

41
 Effects of pollution on Streams/Rivers
The most common types of stream pollutants is the
introduction of biodegradable organic material.
As the organic materials such as sewage are oxidized,
oxygen is used at a rate greater than that upstream
from the sewage discharge, and the dissolved oxygen in
the stream decreases markedly.
The rate of decomposition of organic wastes (i.e the
rate at which O2 consumed) is directly proportional to
the amount of waste available at any time.
42
The-oxygen demanding nature of biodegradable organics is of
utmost importance in natural water systems.
The amount of oxygen consumed during microbial utilization
of organics is called the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).
The BOD is measured by determining the oxygen consumed
from a sample placed in an air-tight container and kept in a
controlled environment for a preselected period of time.
The rate of oxygen use is commonly referred to as biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD).
Biochemical oxygen demand is not a specific pollutant, but
rather a measure of the amount of oxygen required by bacteria
and other microorganisms engaged in stabilizing
decomposable organic matter over a specified period of time.
43
 BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND
The BOD test is often used to estimate the impacts of effluents that
contain

large amounts of biodegradable organics such as that from food processing

plants and feedlots, municipal wastewater treatment facilities, and pulp
mills. A high oxygen demand indicates the potential for developing a
dissolved oxygen sag (see previous chapter) as the microbiota oxidize the
organic matter in the effluent. A very low oxygen demand indicates either
clean water or the presence of a toxic or nondegradable pollution.

the 5-day BOD test (BODS) begins by placing water or effluent samples into
two standard 300-mL BOD bottles. One sample is analyzed immediately to
measure the initial dissolved oxygen concentration in the effluent. The
second BOD bottle is sealed and stored at 20C in the dark. (The samples
are stored in the dark to avoid photosynthetic oxygen generation.)

44
 BOD
After 5 days the amount of dissolved oxygen
remaining in the sample is measured. The difference
between the initial and ending oxygen
concentrations is the BOD5.
sample A Doi = 8mg/l, which dropped to 2 mg/L In 5
days. The BOD therefore is 8 - 2 = 6mg/L.
Sample B= Doi =8mg/l
Dof=0, by the 2nd day
Since there is no
measurable dissolved oxygen
left after 5 days, the BOD of
sample B must be more
than 8 - 0 = 8 mg/L,

45
Contd

oIn the standard test, a 300ml BOD bottle is used and the
sample is incubated at 20oC for 5 days.
oDilution of the sample with BOD free, oxygen-saturated water
is necessary to measure BOD value greater than just a few
milligrams per liter.

-The BOD of a diluted sample is calculated by:

BOD=

Where DOi & Dof are the initial and final dissolved-oxygen
concentrations(mg/l) and P is the decimal fraction of the
sample in the 300-ml bottle.
46
47
 Contd

Curve A-oxygen sag without anaerobic conditions

Curve B-oxygen sag curve when pollution is

concentrated enough to create anaerobic conditions
Do-the initial oxygen deficit in the stream after the
stream has mixed with the pollutant
Ds-the oxygen deficit of the upstream water

48
 Rate of Deoxygenation
Rate of oxygen consumption may be estimated
mathematically as follows

rate of deoxygenation = =-
kLt..Eq.2.1

-L(t)=the amount of oxygen still required at time t,

in milligram per liter (mg/l), and

-K=the deoxygenating constant, in

Integrating equation 2.1 yields a simple solution:

=-kdt, , ln=-kt

Lt=Lo. Eq 2.2
49
 Contd

-where Lo is the ultimate carbonaceous oxygen demand, in

milligram per liter(mg/l),

-or the amount of oxygen needed to degrade the

carbonaceous organic material in the wastewater at the point
where the effluent first enters in to the mixes with the stream.

-while Lt represents the amount remaining at time t, and

decay exponentially with time
The amount of oxygen used in the consumption of the
organics, the BODt, can be found from the Lt value.
If Lo is the oxygen equivalent of the total mass of organics
then the difference between the value Lo & Lt is the oxygen
50
equivalent consumed, or the BOD exerted.
 Contd

Or the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), is simply the difference
between Lo and L(t). Mathematically

BODt=yt=Lo-Lt

yt =Lo-Lo

BODt=yt =Lo(1- ) Eq2.3

BODt+Lt=Lo

where yt or BODt- amount of

oxygen

required by the MO at any time t

(mg/l)

Fig. dissolved oxygen used(BOD) at any time t plus the dissolved oxygen
51
still needed at time t (z(t)) is equal to ultimate oxygen demand.
 Contd

The value of k for any given organic compound is

temperature dependent. Because microorganisms are
more active at higher temperatures, the value of k
increases with temperatures. The change in k can be
approximated by the vant Hoff-Arrhenius model:

A value of 1.047 for is often used, although is known to

vary somewhat with temperature ranges.

52
 Eutrophication process in lakes
The biochemical reactions in a natural lake are represented
schematically in as follows.
A river feeding the lake would contribute carbon,
phosphorus, and nitrogen, either as high-energy organics or
as low-energy compounds.
The phytoplankton (free-floating algae) take C, P, & N, and
using sun light as an energy source make high energy
compounds.
Algae are eaten by zooplankton (tiny aquatic animals), which
are in turn eaten by large aquatic life such as fish.
All of these life forms defecate or excrete waste products,
53
contributing a pool of dissolved organic carbon.
 Contd
This pool is further fed by the death of aquatic life and by
the near-constant leakage of soluble organic compounds
from algae in to the water.
Bacteria use dissolved organic carbon and produce carbon
dioxide, which in turn used by algae. Carbon dioxide is
also provided by respiration of fish and zooplankton, as
well as dissolving in to the water directly from the air.
When P & N are introduced in to the lake, either naturally
from storm runoff, or from a pollution source, the nutrients
promote rapid growth of algae in the epilimnion.

54
 Contd

When the algae die they drop to the lake bottom (the hypolimnion)
and become a source of carbon for decomposing bacteria.
Aerobic bacteria will use all available dissolved oxygen in the
process of decomposing this material, and the dissolved oxygen
may be depleted enough to cause the hypolimnion to become
anaerobic.
As more and more algae die, and more and more oxygen is used in
their decomposition, the metalimnion may also become anaerobic.
When this occurs, aerobic biological activity is restricted to the
epilimnion.
The increasing frequency of this condition over the years is called
eutrophication.
55
 Contd
Eutrophication is the continually occurring natural process of

lake aging and occurs in three stages.

The oligotrophic stage, which is characterized by low levels
of biological productivity and high levels of oxygen in the
hypolimnion.
The mesotrophic stage, which is characterized by
moderate levels of biological productivity and the beginnings
of declining oxygen levels following lake stratification; and
The eutrophic stage, at which point of the lake is very
productive, with extensive algal blooms, and increasingly
anaerobic conditions in the hypolimnion.
56
 Contd

Fig. schematic representation of lake ecology

57
 Chapter Three

Self Purification Process in Natural Water

Systems

58
 What is Self Purification of Streams?
When wastewater is discharged in to the river or
stream, the BOD of mix increases initially and DO level
starts falling.
As river water travels further BOD gradually reduces
and DO increases and reaches its saturation level.
Thus river gets purified on its own.

This phenomena is known as self purification of stream.

59
Contd
o The self purification of the natural water systems is a complex
process that often involves physical, chemical, and biological
processes working simultaneously.
o Chemical and biochemical reactions are conversion processes
rather than removal processes.
o The amount of dissolved oxygen (DO) is one of the most commonly
used indicators of a river health. As DO drops below 4 or 5 mg/l the
forms of life that can survive begin to be reduced. A minimum of
about 2mg/l, of DO is required to maintain higher life forms.
o A number of factors affect the amount of DO available in a river.
Oxygen demanding wastes remove DO, plants add DO during day
but remove it at night; respiration of organisms removes oxygen.
60
 Factors Affecting Self Purification
Dilution- when sufficient dilution water is available in
the receiving water body, where the wastewater is
discharged, the DO level in the receiving stream may
not reach to zero or critical DO due to availability of
sufficient DO initially in the river water before receiving
discharge of wastewater.
The dilution capacity of a stream can be calculated
using the principles of mass balance. If the volumetric
flow rate and the concentration of a given material are
known in both the stream and waste discharge, the
concentration after mixing can be calculated as follows:
61
Contd
Where C represents the concentration (mass/volume)
of the selected material, Q is the volumetric flow rate
(volume/time), and the subscripts s, w, and m
designate stream, waste and mixture conditions.
Current- when strong water current is available, the
discharged wastewater will be thoroughly mixed with
stream water preventing deposition of solids. In small
current, the solid matter from the wastewater will get
deposited at the bed following decomposition and
62
reduction in DO.
Contd
Temperature- the quantity of DO available in stream water is
more in cold temperature than in hot temperature. Also, the
activity of microorganism is more at the higher temperature,
hence, the self purification will take less time at hot temperature
than in cold.
Sunlight- algae produces oxygen in the presence of sunlight due
to photosynthesis. Therefore, sunlight helps in purification of
stream by adding oxygen through photosynthesis.
Rate of oxidation- due to oxidation of organic matter
discharged in the river DO depletion occurs. This rate is faster at
higher temperature and low at lower temperature. The rate of
oxidation of organic matter depends on the chemical composition
of organic matter. 63
 Oxygen Sag Analysis
o The oxygen sag or oxygen deficit in the stream at any point of time
during self-purification process is the difference between the
saturation DO content and actual DO content at that time.

Oxygen deficit, D=Saturation DO-Actual DO

o The DO in the stream may not be at saturation level and there may
be initial oxygen deficit Do. At this stage, when the effluent with
initial BOD load Lo, is discharged in to stream, the DO content of
the stream starts depleting and the oxygen deficit D increases.
o The variation of oxygen deficit (D) with the distance along the
stream, and hence with the time of flow from the point of pollution
is depicted by the oxygen sag curve. The oxygen sag curve is the
sum of the rate of oxygen use and the rate of oxygen supply.

64
 Contd

Fig. Deoxygenation, reoxygenation and oxygen sag curve

65
 Contd

The most important point on the oxygen sag curve is often

the point of minimum DO, i.e., maximum deficit, because
this point represents the maximum impact on DO due to
wastewater discharge. This point is called the critical deficit
Dc, and the time of travel to this point is termed the critical
time tc. Or tc is the time downstream when the DO
concentration is the lowest
De-oxygenation and re-oxygenation occurs simultaneously.
After critical point, the rate of re-aeration is greater than
the de-oxygenation and after some distance the DO will
reach to original level and stream will not have any effect
due to addition of wastewater. At time t=0 at x = 0. 66
 Dissolved Oxygen Model
When biodegradable organics are discharged to a stream
containing dissolved oxygen, microorganisms begin the metabolic
processes that convert the organics, along with the dissolved
oxygen, in to new cells and oxidized waste products.
The rate at which the dissolved oxygen is used will depend on the
quantity of the organics, the ease with which they are
biodegraded, and the dilution capacity of the stream.
The dissolved oxygen that is used from the stream must be
replaced. Two mechanisms are known to contribute oxygen to
surface waters:

1. Dissolution of oxygen from the atmosphere, often called

re-aeration, and

2. production of oxygen by algal photosynthesis. 67

 Re-aeration
When concentrations of DO drop below the equilibrium
value, the net movement of oxygen will be from the
atmosphere in to the water. The difference between the
equilibrium concentration and the actual concentration is
the oxygen deficit and is represented mathematically by
D=Cs-
CEq 3.2

= -
Where Cs & C are the equilibrium and actual
concentration respectively. Or Cs saturation oxygen
concentration level & C concentration of oxygen consumed.
For constant equilibrium conditions, i.e., Cs does 68not
 Contd

where is rate of deficit & rate of oxygen use or

disappears.
The deficit thus increases at the same rate that the oxygen is
used up.

The dissolved oxygen deficit is the driving force for re-

aeration. The greater the deficit, the greater the rate of
re-aeration. From the equation, the rate of re-aeration
increases as the concentration of dissolved oxygen
decreases.

69
 Algal Photosynthesis

In the presence of sunlight, algae metabolize inorganic

compounds, with one of the waste product being
oxygen. The following formula is a simplified
representation of this reaction.

CO2 + 2H2O light CH2O + O2 + H2O

The oxygen thus released is immediately available to
replenish the dissolved oxygen in the water.

70
 De-oxygenation and Re-oxygenation
When wastewater is discharged in to the stream, the DO
level on the stream goes on depleting. This depletion of DO
content is known as de-oxygenation.
The rate of de-oxygenation depends up on the amount of
organic matter remaining (Lt), to be oxidized at any time t,
as well as temperature (T) at which reaction occurs.
The variation of depletion of DO content of the stream with
time is depicted by the de-oxygenation curve in the absence
of aeration.
The ordinates below the de-oxygenation curve in the above
fig. indicate the oxygen remaining in the natural stream after
satisfying the bio-chemical demand of oxygen. 71
 Contd

When the DO content of the stream is gradually consumed due to BOD

load, atmosphere supplies oxygen continuously to the water, through

the process of re-aeration or re-oxygenation, i.e., along with de-

oxygenation, re-aeration is continuous process.

The rate of re-oxygenation depends up on:

1. Depth of water in the stream: more for shallow depth.

2. Velocity of flow in the stream: less for stagnant water.

3. Oxygen deficit below saturation DO: since solubility rate

depends on difference between saturation concentration and existing

concentration of DO.

4. Temperature of water: solubility is lower at higher temperature

and also saturation concentration is less at higher temperature.

72
Mathematical
Analysis of Oxygen Sag Curve
o Rate of Oxygen Removal

The rate at which dissolved oxygen disappears from the

stream coincides with the rate of BOD exertion.
Therefore

= -...Eq
3.4

substituting this in to Eq 3.3

= -, gives us = Eq
3.5

where is rate of BOD exertion, & is rate of oxygen

disappears and is rate of change of deficit 73
 Contd

Confirming that an increase in the rate of BOD exertion
results in an increase in the rate of change of oxygen
deficit. In eq.2.3 it was shown that,
y=Lo-Lt
Because Lo is the ultimate BOD and therefore a fixed value,

= - ..Eq 3.6

Recalling Eq 2.1 =-
And making appropriate substitutions in Eqs. 3.5 & 3.6, the
following relationship is obtained.
= ..Eq 3.7
74
 Contd

which states that the rate of change in the dissolved

oxygen deficit at time t due to the BOD is a first-order
reaction proportional to the oxygen equivalent of the
remaining organics.
A more convenient form of equation 3.7 is

= Eq
3.8

where replaces the differential form as the rate of

change in the oxygen deficit due to oxygen utilization.
And is de-oxygenation rate constant.
75
o Rate of Oxygen Addition
o The rate of re-aeration is a first-order reaction with
respect to the magnitude of oxygen deficit. This is
expressed mathematically by

=
D.Eq 3.9

where is the rate at which oxygen becomes

dissolved from the atmosphere, D is the oxygen deficit
defined by Eq 3.2 and is a re-aeration rate constant.

the negative sign reflects the fact that an increase

in the oxygen supply due to re-aeration reduces the
oxygen deficit. 76
 Contd

The oxygen deficit in a stream is a function of both oxygen
utilization and re-aeration.
Inspection of Eq 3.8 & 3.9 shows that these two processes
have opposite effects on the deficit. This is shown in the
above fig.
The rate of change in the deficit is the sum of the two
reactions.

= +

= D Eq 3.10
The oxygen deficit, and therefore the oxygen concentration,
at any point in time after the discharge can be determined
77
by integrating Eq 3.10.
 Contd

Recalling from Eq 2.2 that
Lt=Lo.
and rearranging Eq 3.10, the following equation is
obtained
= Lt - DEq
3.11
+ D = Lo.Eq 3.12
where D=DO deficit at any time t
=BOD reaction rate constant or de-
oxygenation constant
=Re-oxygenation constant
t=time in days
Lo=Ultimate oxygen
=rate of change of DO deficit
78
 Contd

The final solution becomes
D = ( - ) + DoEq 3.13
In this equation, t represents the time of travel in the
stream from the point of discharge and is the only
independent variable in the equation.
The time of travel from the point of discharge to any
given downstream point is:
t= ..Eq 3.14
where x is the distance along the stream and u is
the stream velocity. The units of t must always be days.
Substituting values for t, or in to Eq (3.13), will result in
a value of D for that point in the stream.
this is Streeter-Phelps oxygen sag equation.

79
 Contd

The graphical representation of this equation is shown in

the Figure below

80
Fig. Oxygen sag curve of Streeter-Phelps equation
 Contd

The most important point on the oxygen sag curve is

often the point of lowest concentration because this
point represents the maximum impact on the dissolved
oxygen due to wastewater discharge.
This point is called the critical deficit Dc, and the time to
travel to this point is termed the critical time .
Recognizing that the rate of change of the deficit is zero
at the maximum deficit, an expression of Dc can be
found from Eq 3.12. i.e + D = Lo.
Or The value of Dc can be obtained by putting dD/dt = 0
in equation 3.12 81
 Contd

0 + Dc = Lo.

Dc = Lo.

Dc = Lo.
.Eq 3.15

Where, tc is time required to reach the critical point.

and, = ln [1-Do.Eq 3.16

The distance Xc is given by Xc = tc . u

Eq 3.17

Where, u = velocity of flow in the stream

The deo-xygenation constant K, varies with temperature =

=1.047, and =, =1.016 82

 Mixing of Rivers
When two streams or rivers merge or wastewater is
discharged to a stream it is possible to determine the
BOD and DO after mixing assuming steady state
conditions and instantaneous mixing. The two streams
are considered as dilutions of each other thus the initial
BOD and DO will be:
= =
=
=

83
 Where

: is the initial concentration of BOD in the river
downstream of the mixing, also called BOD(0). The unit
of BOD [mg/l]
ys: is the BOD of the concentration in the river/stream
[mg/l]
yww : is the BOD concentration of the wastewater [mg/l]
: is the initial concentration of the dissolved oxygen in
the river downstream of the conjoining point
: is the concentration of the dissolved oxygen content in
the river/stream
is the background concentration of the dissolved oxygen
content in the merging river
is the flow rate of mixing water []
: is the flow rate in the river upstream from the mixing
point[]
: is the flow rate of the river/stream 84