3355871

ENGR 691 73: Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels
Lecture 04: Nonuniform Flow
Yan Ding, Ph.D.

Research Assistant Professor, National Center for Computational
Hydroscience and Engineering (NCCHE), The University of Mississippi,
Old Chemistry 335, University, MS 38677
Phone: 915-8969; Email: ding@ncche.olemiss.edu
Course Notes by: Mustafa S. Altinakar and Yan Ding
Lecture 4. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 1

Outline
Transition Between Subcritical and Critical Flow

Introduction to Hydraulic Jump
Gradually Varied Flow (Governing Equations)
Forms of water surface (Channels on Mild Slope, Critical Slope,
Steep Slope, Adverse Slope, Horizontal Slope)
Control Points
Computation of Water Surface (Method of successive
Approximations; Method of Direct Integration; Method of
Graphical Integration)
Rapidly Varied Flow (Weirs; Spillways; Hydraulic Drop;
Underflow Gates; Hydraulic Jump)
Transitions (Channel with variable Bed Floor; Channel of variable
Width; Oblique Jump)
Lateral Inflow
Transitions between subcritical and critical flow
Transition Transition
from subcritical to supercritical flow from supercritical to subcritical flow
So Sc So Sc
So Sc So Sc
When the flow changes from subcritical to When the flow changes from supercritical
supercritical the water surface lowers to subcritical the water surface rapidly
gradually from a higher depth to a lower increases from a supercritical depth to
depth by passing through critical depth. subcritical depth. This sudden increase is
called a rapidly varied flow.
In the region where the flow changes from
subcritical to critical flow, a gradually The rapidly varied flow may be preceded
varied flow takes place. by a gradually varied flow region where
the flow depth rises but stays below
critical depth.
h h
hhj
h2 h2
conjugate depths alternate depths
hc or hc
sequent depths V2
h1 V1 q h1
M1 M 2 M h1 h2 H s2 hhj Hs
Specific Momentum H s1
2 2 V2
q h Specific Energy Hs h
M 2g
gh 2
Equation of continuity q V1h1 V2 h2 Things

Things to
to remember:
remember:
Conjugate
Conjugate depths
depths or
or
Momentum equation F F p1 Fp2 Q V2 V1 sequent
sequent depths
depths (on
(on Specific
Specific
2 2
Momentum
Momentum Curve)
Curve)
h h Alternate
Alternate depths
depths (on
(on
with Fp1 1 B Fp 2 2 B
2 2 Specific
Specific Energy
Energy Curve)
Curve)

h
2
h
2
q q h1
2
h q q
2
1 B 2 B Q 2 q
2 2 h2 h1 2 2 h2 h1
h1
2
h2
2
q2 q2 h1
2
q 2 h2 q2
2
M1 M 2
2 2 gh2 gh1 2 gh1 2 gh2
By combining momentum equation and continuity equation, on gets:
h2 1 h1 1
1 8Fr1 1 1 8Fr2 1
2 2
or
h1 2 h2 2
V1 V2
where Fr1 and Fr2
gh1 gh2

Gradually Varied Flow Equation
Consider the steady non uniform flow in a channel.
2 hf We wish to develop an equation for the variation of
U1 / 2 g the water surface h(x), i.e. longitudinal water surface
U 2 / 2g
2 profile.
Q U 2 / 2g
h1 For this, we will consider the equation of energy:
H h
h2 zh
U2
zh
Q / A H 2
2g 2g
z1 z z2 and the equation of continuity: Q UA

ref. line
L
dz dh d Q / A
2
dH
Differentiate the energy equation with respect to x to get:
dx dx dx 2 g dx
So Se
Assuming that the head loss can be expressed using Chezy equation, we have: Se
Q / A
2
C 2 Rh
d Q / A Q / A
2 2
dh
So
dx 2 g dx C 2 Rh

Consider the steady non uniform flow in a channel.
2 hf We wish to develop an equation for the variation of
U1 / 2 g the water surface h(x), i.e. longitudinal water surface
U 2 / 2g
2 profile.
Q U 2 / 2g
h1 For this, we will consider the equation of energy:
H h
h2 zh
U2
zh
Q / A H 2
2g 2g
z1 z z2 and the equation of continuity: Q UA

ref. line
L
dz dh d Q / A
2
dH
Differentiate the energy equation with respect to x to get:
dx dx dx 2 g dx
So Se
Assuming that the head loss can be expressed using Chezy equation, we have: Se
Q / A
2
C 2 Rh
d Q / A Q / A
2 2
dh
So
dx 2 g dx C 2 Rh

Note that for a prismatic channel the flow area is only a function of the flow depth, A = f(h) :
d Q / A Q 2
2
2 dA Q 2 dA dh Q 2 dh Q 2 B dh
We can, therefore, write: 3 3 B
dx 2 g 2 g A3 dx gA dh dx gA dx gA3 dx

Q / A
2
B
dh dh

Q / A
So 2
2
Substitute this expression back into the previous equation to get:

gA dx dx C Rh
1
Q / A 2
By rearranging the terms, we obtain a differential equation describing the dh C 2 Rh S o
So
variation of flow depth with distance, i.e. the equation for longitudinal water dx
1
Q / A
2
surface profile: gA / B
dh
It is important to note that when: 0
dx
i.e. Chezy
the water surface profile equation reduces to Q / A 2
U C Rh S o
2 2
U C Rh S o equation for
uniform flow

dh
0 The flow depth remains constant and is equal to normal depth (uniform flow)
dx
dh
0 The flow depth increases in the direction of flow
dx
dh
0 The flow depth decreases in the direction of flow
dx
1
Q / A 2
dh C 2 Rh S o
Consider again the equation for longitudinal water surface profile: So
dx
1
Q / A
2
gA / B
1
Q / A
2
1
U2 dh
For 1 Fr 2 the denominator becomes zero and we have:
gA / B gDh dx
We can, therefore conclude that, at critical flow (Fr = 1 and h = hc), the water surface profile is perpendicular to bed.
Fr 1
1
Q / A 2 0 1
Q / A
2
The normal is equal to critical depth, hn = hc , when: 2 C 2 Rh S o gA / B

C Rh S o gA / B
dh
Uniform flow 0
dx
Review of the Notion of Critical Flow
Consider the flow cases below (for all cases channel cross Critical slope is the bed slope
section characteristics are the same): when normal depth, hn, is equal to
critical depth, hc.
hn
hn hc hc hn
hc
So Sc So Sc So Sc
hn hc hn hc hn hc
Fr 1 Fr 1 Fr 1
U Q Q2B gA3
When flow is critical, we have: Fr 1 Fr 1 1 Q
2
gDh A gA3 B
A g
B
1/ 2 1/ 2
Since the flow is also uniform, Chezy equation holds: Q CA Rh S o
gA3
Equating two expressions, we have: Q C A Rh S c
2 2 2
note that we have changed So to Sc.
B
gA
The expression for critical discharge is obtained as: Sc 2
C BRh
A2 4 / 3 gA3 gAn 2
If Manning-Strickler is used: Q 2 Rh S c
2 Sc 4/3
n B BRh
Gradually Varied Flow Equation in Terms of Conveyance
The equation for gradually varied flow can also be written using the notion of conveyance:
1/ 2
A 2/3 when the flow Q K n ( h) S o
Remember the K (h) Rh when using Manning Strickler
definition of n is uniform, in or
conveyance: 1/ 2 either case we Q
K ( h) C A Rh when using Chezy K n ( h)
can write: 1/ 2
So
Consider the term in the denominator of Q / A 2

Q2B Q2B

Q2B
2
C 2 A2 Rh S o
gradually varied flow equation: gA / B gA3 gA3 C 2 A2 Rh 2 S o gA3
2
Q2 B Q2 1 C 2 B Rh Q2B
2
K n So
So
gA3 So CAR
h
1/ 2 2
gA gA3 K 2 Sc
1
K n (h) 2 K (h)

Sc
Now consider the term in the nominator of

Q / A 2
Q2

Q2 K S
2
K
n2 o n2
2
gradually varied flow equation: h

C 2 Rh S o C 2 A2 Rh S o CAR 1/ 2 2
So K So K
2
K
1 n
dh K
The gradually varied flow equation can therefore be written as: So 2
dx K n So
1
K Sc

Special forms of Gradually Varied Flow Equation: Wide Channel
Let us now consider a wide rectangular channel. The Chezy equation can be written as:
3 q2
Q C A Rh
1/ 2
So
1/ 2
C A hn
1/ 2
So
1/ 2
Q C B hn S o
2 2 2 3
hn
C 2 So
The critical depth in a rectangular channel is given by: 3 q2

hc
g
Using these expressions and assuming that the Chezy coefficient C does not depend on depth h, the gradually varied
flow equation can be written as:
3
h
1 n
dh h
So 3 This equation is known as equation of Bresse
dx h
1 c named after the French scientist J.A.C. BRESSE (1822-1883),
h who developed it first.
A 2 / 3 1/ 2 Bhn 2 / 3 1/ 2 B h 5 / 3 S o
1/ 2 Qn qn
If we use Manning-Strickler, we have: Q hn S o hn S o h5 / 3 1/ 2
1/ 2
n n n BS o So
10 / 3
h
1 n
dh h
In this case equation of Bresse becomes: So 3
dx h
1 c
h

Gradually Varied Flow: Forms of Water Surface
Before we present all possible gradually varied flow profiles, let us take a look at the general properties of such
curves:
The water surface profile approaches asymptotically to uniform depth hn.
The water surface profile is orthogonal to the critical depth line, when h = hc.
Water surface profiles are classified according to the bed slope.
So Sc Channel on Mild slope M type profile

For each
So 0 So Sc Channel on Steep slope S type profile profile type
several
type profile possibilities
So Sc Channel on Critical slope C
are
distinguished.
So 0 These are
Channel on Horizontal slope H type profile
called
branches.
So 0 Channel on Adverse slope A type profile
In studying gradually varied water surface profiles we should also keep in mind that:
In subcritical flow (Fr < 1), the perturbations travel both upstream and downstream. The water surface profiles
for subcritical flow are controlled by a downstream control section.
In supercritical flow (Fr > 1), the perturbations travel only downstream. The water surface profiles for
supercritical flow are controlled by an upstream control section.

Convention for numbering branches:
When the water surface profile is

higher than both the normal depth
and the critical depth, the branch is
numbered as type 1,
the water surface profile is between
the normal and critical depths, the
branch is numbered as type 2,
the water surface profile is lower
than both the normal depth and the
critical depth, the branch is
numbered as type 3,

Channel on Mild slope
So 0 and So Sc hn hc
M-type profiles
h hn hc hn h hc hn hc h
Fr 1 Fr 1 Fr 1
dh dh dh
0 0 0
dx dx dx
Branch M1 Branch M2 Branch M3
Towards upstream the profile Towards upstream the profile Towards downstream the
approaches asymptotically approaches asymptotically profile approaches increasingly
normal depth, towards normal depth, towards to critical depth.
downstream the curve tends to downstream the curve
become horizontal. decreasingly tends to critical
depth.
Encountered: Encountered: Encountered:
Upstream of a weir or a dam Upstream of an increase in When a supercritical flow
Upstream of a pier bed slope enters a mild channel
Upstream of certain bed Upstream of a free drop After a change in slope from
slope changes points structure steep to mild

Channel on Steep slope
S-type profiles
h hc hn hc h hn hc hn h
Fr 1 Fr 1 Fr 1
dh dh dh
0 0 0
dx dx dx
Branch S1 Branch S2 Branch S3
Towards upstream the profile Towards upstream the profile Towards downstream the
approaches asymptotically approaches asymptotically profile approaches increasingly
normal depth, towards normal depth, towards to critical depth.
downstream the curve tends to downstream the curve
become horizontal. decreasingly tends to critical
depth.
Encountered: Encountered: Encountered:
Upstream of a weir or a dam Upstream of an increase in When a supercritical flow
Upstream of a pier bed slope enters a mild channel
Upstream of certain bed Upstream of a free drop After a change in slope from
slope changes points structure steep to mild

Channel on Critical slope
C-type profiles
h hc hn h hc hn
Fr 1 Fr 1
dh dh
0 0
dx dx
Branch C1 Branch C2 Branch C3
The water surface profile is There is no physically possible The water surface profile is
horizontal, when Chezy C2 profile. horizontal, when Chezy
equation is used. equation is used.
Encountered: Encountered:
Upstream of a dam/weir When a supercritical flow
At certain bed slope change enters a mild channel
locations After a change in slope from
steep to mild

Channel on Horizontal slope
So 0 hn
H-type profiles
h hc hc h
Fr 1 Fr 1
dh dh
0 0
dx dx
Branch H1 Branch H2 Branch H3
Normal depth becomes infinite Similar to M2 profile Similar to M3 profile

and is meaningless.
Consequently, H1 profile is not
possible.
Upstream of a free drop When a supercritical flow
structure enters a horizontal channel

Channel on Adverse slope
So 0 hn
H-type profiles
h hc hc h
Fr 1 Fr 1
dh dh
0 0
dx dx
Branch A1 Branch A2 Branch A3
Normal depth becomes infinite Similar to H2 profile Similar to H3 profile

and is meaningless. (parabolic) (parabolic)
Consequently, A1 profile is not
possible.
Upstream of a certain bed When a supercritical flow
slope change location enters a channel with adverse
slope

Gradually Varied Flow: Notion of Control Section
Note that the passage from subcritical flow to

supercritical flow occurs with a smooth surface.
On the other hand, when the flow passes from
supercritical flow to subcritical flow, a sudden
increase in the water depth is observed. On the
figure this is indicated by HJ, which means
hydraulic jump. We will study hydraulic jump
in more detail later.
Photograph from Ohio
University's Fluid
Mechanics Laboratory.
Athens, Ohio USA
http://www.lmnoeng.com/Channels/HydraulicJump.htm
Control point, as the name implies, is the point

that controls the water surface profile. At a
control point we can generally write an
expression between discharge and depth. Thus,
it can be used as boundary condition for
calculating the water surface profile.
Critical Depth as Control Section and Other Uses of Critical Depth
In open channel flow locally a critical flow situation may exist for certain situations, such as slope
change from mild to steep, free fall (drop structure), and excessive contraction, etc.
Changing from a mild slope to a steep slope

(passage from subcritical flow to supercritical
flow).
Subcritical flow at a free overfall.

In fact, the critical depth takes place about
3 to 4 times hc upstream of the brink (due
to curvature of streamlines). The depth at
the brink is approximately equal to:
hb 0.71 hc
The cases of critical flow due to excessive contraction and a high positive step will be studied later.
In open channel flow critical section is a valuable tool because, knowing the geometry of the section,
one can write the relationship between flow depth and discharge.
Due to this property, critical condition is sometimes forced at a point in the channel. Then the discharge
can be obtained by measuring the flow depth.
Computation of Gradually Varied Flow
Several methods are available for computing gradually varied water surface profiles:
1. The most obvious is to solve the differential equation of gradually varied flow, equation of Bresse, using a
numerical method, such as 4th order Runge-Kutta method. This method is called method of direct integration.
3 10 / 3
h h
1 n 1 n
dh h Equation of Bresse dh h
Equation of Bresse So 3
f x, hx using Manning- So 3
f x, hx
using Chezy equation: dx h dx h
1 c Strickler equation: 1 c
h h
x
4th order Runge-Kutta method formula can be written as: hx x hx k1 2k2 2k3 k4
6
where: x Coordinate along the channel length. The origin can be arbitrarily placed at any location.
hx Flow depth at location x. All flow parameters at this location are known.
hx x Flow depth at location x+x. This is the unknown flow depth we are calculating.
x x
k1 f x, hx k3 f x , hx k2
2 2
x x
k2 f x , hx k1 k 4 f x x, hx x k3
2 2
Computations should start from a point where all flow parameters are known (such as a control point) and
proceed upstream if the flow is subcritical and downstream if the flow is supercritical.

Several methods are available for computing gradually varied water surface profiles:
2. The second possibility is to use directly the energy equation to compute the water surface profile by employing an
iterative procedure. This approach is called method of successive approximations.
This method can be applied in two ways:
2.1 The open channel reach under study is divided into sub-reaches at known intervals starting from a control
point where all the hydraulic parameters are known. Based on the depth at the known point the depth at the
next station is computed. This method is called method of reaches (Stand Step Method in Open-Channel
Flow, MH Chaudhry).
2.2 A control point where all the hydraulic parameters are known is identified. The depth at that station, h, is
known. We choose another depth h+h, and compute where this depth will be along the channel. This
method is called method of depth variation (Direct-Step Method, MH Chaudhry).
In this course, we will study only the method of reaches.
Please refer to the textbook and other references for more information on other methods that can be used for
computation of water surfaces.

Computation of Gradually Varied Flow: Method of Reaches
Consider the gradually varied flow shown in the figure.
We have divided the reach under study into smaller

sub reaches of length x. We also define the cross
x S e sections i, i+1, i+2, .. etc.
We will assume that the geometric properties of the

channel (A, P, B, Rh, Dh) at each cross section can be
calculated by knowing the depth.
We will also assume that the depth at cross section i

is known. We would like to calculate the depth at
cross section i+1.
Let us write the equation of energy Bernoulli
equation) between two cross sections i and i+1 :
2 2 2 2
U U U U
zi hi i zi 1 hi 1 i 1 x S e zi hi i zi 1 hi 1 i 1 x S e
2g 2g 2g 2g
zi zi 1 H s
H si1 x S e zi zi 1 H s i
H si1 S
zi 1 zi H s i 1
H si S
e e
x x x x
i
dz dH s dH s dH s
Se So Se So Se
dx dx dx dx
Therefore, when using the method of reaches, we will be solving this ordinary differential equation:
The basic equation we are using is:

2 2
U U
zi hi i zi 1 hi 1 i 1 x S e
x S e 2g 2g
H i H i 1 x S e
Since depth hi , invert elevation zi and the discharge

Q are known, we can calculate the left side of the
equation, i.e. the total energy head, Hi directly.
Let us now assume a depth hi+1 . Since the invert

elevation zi and the discharge Q are known, we can
also calculate the total energy head, Hi+1 directly.
Now the question is weather the assumed that is the correct depth. This can be easily done. If the assumed depth
hi+1 is correct, then, the difference between the total heads Hi and Hi+1 should be equal to x Se.
The energy gradient can be calculated using either the equation of Chezy or Manning Strickler:
Q / A 2
Se
Q / A n 2
2
Chezy equation: Se Manning Strickler equation: 4/3

2
C Rh Rh

Since the hydraulic parameters are varying from cross section i to i+1, S ei S ei1
we may want to use the average value of the energy gradient: Se
2
Note also that : x xi 1 xi
S ei S ei1
We should therefore check that: H i H i 1 x S e or H i H i 1 xi 1 xi is satisfied.
2
If the above equation is not satisfied, a new value should be assumed for hi+1 and the computations must be carried out
again.
All these calculation can easily be carried out on a spread sheet.
If there are singular losses between the two cross sections i and i +1, this should also be taken into account. Then the
equation becomes:
H i H i 1 x S e K
U2
x S e K
Q / A 2
2g 2g
Q / A 2
1 Q / Ai Q / Ai 1
2 2
Again considering average values we can write:

2g 2g 2
S e S ei1 1 Q / Ai Q / Ai 1
2 2
Consequently: H i H i 1 xi 1 xi i K
2 2g 2

A trapezoidal channel having a bottom width of b = 7.0m and side slopes of m = 1.5, conveys a discharge of Q = 28m3/s.
The channel has a constant bed slope of So = 0.001. The Manning friction coefficient for the channel is n = 0.025m-1/3s.
The channel terminates by a sudden drop of the bed.
1. Determine the type of water surface profile to be expected.
2. Calculate the water surface profile for a reach length of 3200m.
The computation of gradually varied flow equations can be easily carried out on a spreadsheet using Goal Seek
function

Rapidly Varied Flow at Channel Transitions
A transition is a change in the channel geometry over a relatively short distance. The change can be contraction or
expansion of the section, or a change in the section cross section geometry (say from rectangular to trapezoidal), or an
abrupt rise or drop of the channel bed. In designing transition, the attention must be paid to create minimum amount
of disturbance to the flow.
https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/engineering/hydraulics/pubs/06086/hec14ch06.cfm#fig096
The figure shows, typical designs for channel transition from a rectangular cross section to a trapezoidal cross
section.
Use of Specific Energy to study Rapidly Varied Flow at Channel Transitions
h
Curve plotted for a constant Q
w
flo
al
Specific Energy
ic
2
it
U1 / 2 g
cr
b
U2 Q2
Su
Hs h h
2g 2 gA2
h1
Alternate depths
hc 2
Uc / 2g
h1 hc
hc h2 2
U 2 / 2g Supercritical flow
h2 hc
Es H s Es or H s
Specific energy curve is an extremely useful tool for analyzing various flow situations. In the following
slides we will learn how the specific energy curve can be used to analyze various flow situations in
channel transitions (flow over a positive or negative step, flow through a contraction or expansion).

Rapidly Varied Flow at Channel Transitions
In the following pages we will study in detail the rapid change of water surface at four types of channel transitions
under both subcritical and supercritical conditions:
1. Subcritical flow over a positive step Q

z Side view
2. Supercritical flow over a positive step
Q
3. Subcritical flow over a negative step
z Side view
4. Supercritical flow over a negative step
5. Subcritical flow through a contraction

Q Top view
6. Supercritical flow through a contraction
7. Subcritical flow through an expansion

Q Top view
8. Supercritical flow through an expansion

Rapidly Varied Flow: Subcritical Flow over a Positive Step
h q Q / B const.
h q Q / B const.
2 2
U1 / 2 g U 2 / 2g
H s2
h2
H s1 h1 hc
h2 Hs
z H s1 z
Hs H s2
H s1 z z
H s1
Assume that the head loss due to the step is negligible (the energy grade line remains parallel to the bed).
2 2
U U
H s1 z h1 1 z h2 2 H s2 h1 U1 B h2 U 2 B Q
2g 2g

Rapidly Varied Flow: Supercritical Flow over a Positive Step
h q Q / B const.
h q Q / B const. 2
U 2 / 2g
2
U1 / 2 g
H s2
H s1 hc h2
Hs
h2 h z H s1 z
1
Hs H s2
H s1 z z
H s1
2 2
U U
2g 2g

Rapidly Varied Flow: Subcritical Flow over a Negative Step
h q Q / B const.
h q Q / B const.
2
U 2 / 2g
2
U1 / 2 g
h2
H s1
h1 h2 H s2
Hs
H s1 z z
H s2 H s1 z Hs
H s2
2 2
U U
2g 2g

Rapidly Varied Flow: Supercritical Flow over a Negative Step
h q Q / B const.
h q Q / B const.
2
U 2 / 2g
2
U1 / 2 g
H s1
h1 h H s2
2
Hs
H s1 z z
h2
H s2 H s1 z Hs
H s2
2 2
U U
2g 2g

Top view Rapidly Varied Flow: Subcritical Flow through a Contraction
B1 B2
h 2
U1 / 2 g q2 Q / B2 h 2
U 2 / 2g
Side view
H s1 h1 H s2
h2
hc 2
hc1
q1 Q / B1
Hs Hs
H s1 H s2 H s1
Assume that the head loss due to contraction is negligible (the energy grade line remains parallel to the bed).
2 2
U U
H s1 h1 1 h2 2 H s2 h1 U1 B1 h2 U 2 B2 Q
2g 2g

Top view
Rapidly Varied Flow: Supercritical Flow through a Contraction
B1 B2
h 2
U1 / 2 g q2 Q / B2 h 2
U 2 / 2g
Side view
H s1 H s2
hc 2
hc1 h2
h1 q1 Q / B1
Hs Hs
H s1 H s2 H s1
2 2
U U
H s1 h1 1 h2 2 H s2 h1 U1 B1 h2 U 2 B2 Q
2g 2g

Top view
Rapidly Varied Flow: Subcritical Flow through an expansion
B1 B2
h 2
U1 / 2 g q1 Q / B1 h 2
U 2 / 2g
Side view
H s1 h1 h2 H s2
hc1 hc 2
q2 Q / B2
Hs Hs
H s1 H s2 H s1
2 2
U U
H s1 h1 1 h2 2 H s2 h1 U1 B1 h2 U 2 B2 Q
2g 2g

Rapidly Varied Flow: Supercritical Flow through an Expansion
Top view
B1 B2
h 2
U1 / 2 g q1 Q / B1 h 2
U 2 / 2g
Side view
H s1 H s2
h1 hc1 q2 Q / B2 h2
hc 2
Hs Hs
H s1 H s2 H s1
2 2
U U
H s1 h1 1 h2 2 H s2 h1 U1 B1 h2 U 2 B2 Q
2g 2g

Rapidly Varied Flow: Special Case of Choked Flow due to a High Positive Step
By subtracting z from Hs1, we h q Q / B const.

cannot fall back onto the specific
energy curve
h q Q / B const. At one point on the step the flow
goes through the critical depth of
the cross section on the step.
final energy line
initial energy line
final water surface
initial water surface
h1 f
H s1 h2 hc2
h1i Hs
hc1 z H s1 z
z Hs H s2 H sc2
H s1
If the step is too high, subtracting z from Hs1, we cannot fall back onto the specific energy curve. The flow is said to be choked.
The step is too high. The water accumulates upstream of the step until it can pass over it by going through critical flow over the
step. Same equations hold. However, now h1 is also an unknown. Condition of critical flow over the step provides the third
equation needed for the analysis.
2
U1 f
U
2
H s1 f z h1 f z h2 2 H s2 h1 f U1 f B h2 U 2 B Q h2 hc2
2g 2g
Rapidly Varied Flow: Special Case of Choked Flow due to too much Contraction
Top view
B1 B2
With the available energy Hs1, we At one point on the contracted

h cannot cut the specific energy
curve of the contracted section
q2 Q / B2 h section the flow goes through the
critical depth of that cross section.
final energy line
initial energy line
final water surface

Side view
initial water surface
H s1 h1 f H s2
h1i h2 hc2
hc1
q1 Q / B1
Hs Hs
H s1 H s2 H sc2
If the step is contracted too much, with the specific energy Hs1 we cannot cut the specific energy curve of the contracted section.
The flow is said to be choked. The section is contracted too much. The water accumulates upstream of the contraction until it can
pass a discharge of Q to the downstream by going through critical flow of the contracted section. Same equations hold. However,
now h1 is also an unknown. Condition of critical flow at the contracted section provides the third equation needed for the
analysis.
2
U1 f
U
2
H s1 f z h1 f z h2 2 H s2 h1 f U1 f B h2 U 2 B Q h2 hc2
2g 2g
Energy Losses For Subritical Flow in Open Channel Transitions
Head losses at contractions and expansions can be calculated using the following expressions:
U 2 2 U 12 U 2 2 U 12
H Lc Cc
H Le Ce

2 g 2 g 2 g 2 g
U1 U2 U1 U2
Contraction Expansion
Taken from USACE (1994)
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1994. Hydraulic Design of Flood Control Channels, Engineering and Design Manual, EM 1110-2-1601,
July 1991, Change 1 (June 1994).
Rapidly Varied Flow: Hydraulic Jump
Hydraulic jump is a natural

phenomenon that occurs when
supercritical flow is forced to
become subcritical.
The passage from supercritical

flow to subcritical takes place
with a sudden rise of the flow
depth accompanied by a very
turbulent motion that may
entrain air into the flow.
To derive the equation governing hydraulic jump in a channel (see figure above), we will make use of momentum and
continuity equations simultaneously.
Consider a control volume, which comprises the hydraulic jump. The upstream cross section of the control volume is in
supercritical flow and the downstream section is in subcritical flow. Forces acting on this control volume are the weight
of the fluid, W, the upstream and downstream pressure forces, FP1 and FP2 respectively, and the friction force, Ff. The
momentum equation can be written as:
F x FP1 FP2 W sin F f Q U 2 U1
h1 h1
Assuming a rectangular channel, we have: A1 h1 B A2 h2 B q Q/B FP1 A1 FP2 A2
2 2

Using these expressions and neglecting the component of weight and friction forces, the momentum equation becomes:
h
2
h
2
q q h1
2
h q q
2
h1
2
h2
2
q2 q2
1 B 2 B Q 2 q
2 2 2 h1
h 2 2 h2 h1 2 2 gh2 gh1
2 2
h1 q 2 h2 q2

2 gh1 2 gh2
Note that the left and right hand side of the equation q2 h2
M
represent the specific momentum, which is defined as: gh 2
h
2
Let us now make use of equation of continuity to 1 2 U
h2 h1 1 h1 1 1
2
write the momentum equation as: 2 2 h2

2
2 U
Divide both sides by (h2 h1) to get: h2 h2 h1 2h1 1 0
g
2 2
Only the positive root of the above quadratic 1 h U
equation is physically meaningful:
h2 h1 1 2h1 1
2 4 g
h2 1 h1 1
Written in dimensionless form, the above 1 8 Fr1 1 1 8Fr2 1
2 2
or
equation becomes: h1 2 h2 2
2 2
2U 2 U This equation is called the equation of Blanger in honor
where Fr1 1 and Fr2 2
gh1 gh2 of the French scientist who developed it for the first time.
Note that for a hydraulic jump on larger slopes, the weight of the fluid cannot be neglected. In this case, the equation of
Blanger for hydraulic jump becomes:
h2 1
1 8 HJ Fr1 1
2
where HJ 100.027 as given by Rajaratnam.
h1 2
is in degrees
Hydraulic jumps are classified according to the approach flow Froude

number.
https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/engineering/hydraulics/pubs/06086/hec14ch06.cfm#fig096

Photos from (Dr. H. Chanson): http://www.uq.edu.au/~e2hchans/undular.html
Fr1 1.6
Energy loss across the hydraulic jump:
U
2
hhj H s1 H s2 h1 1
U
2
h2 2

h2 h1
3
2g 2g 4h1h2

Lhj
Length of the hydraulic jump: 5 7
h2 h1
Classification of hydraulic jumps:
Fr1 1.7 Undular jump
1.7 Fr1 2.5 Weak jump
2.5 Fr1 4.5 Oscillating jump

jump type generally
4.5 Fr1 9.0 Steady jump preferred in engineering
applications
Fr1 9.0 Strong jump

Use of Hydraulic Jump in Hydraulic Engineering
Hydraulic jump is used for dissipating the energy of The hydraulic jump, should take place in a area where the
high speed flow which may harm the environment if bottom is protected (for example by a concrete slab or large
released in an uncontrolled way. size rocks). If the jump takes place on erodible material the
formation of the erosion hole may endanger even the
foundations of the structure.
In real engineering projects measures are taken to

ensure that the hydraulic jump takes place in the area
with a protected bottom. This is achieved by creating
a stilling basin with the use of chute blocks,
baffle piers, and end sill, etc.

Examples of the Use of Hydraulic Jump in Hydraulic Engineering
http://www.engineering.uiowa.edu/~cfd/gallery/images/hyd8.jpg

Design of Stilling Basins
USBR Type I Stilling Basin USBR Type II Stilling Basin USBR Type III Stilling Basin
USBR Type IV Stilling Basin SAF Stilling Basin Pillaris Stilling Basin

Books on Design of Stilling Basins
Hydraulic Design of Stilling Energy Dissipators and

Basins and Energy Dissipators Hydraulic Jump
by A. J. Peterka, U.S. by Willi H. Hager
Department of the Interior,
Bureau of Reclamation

Positioning of a Hydraulic Jump
Draw the downstream subcritical flow profile starting from a control section at the downstream.
Draw the upstream supercritical flow profile starting from a control section at the upstream.
Draw the conjugate depth curve for the upstream supercritical flow profile.
For a hydraulic jump with zero length the jump is a vertical water surface between A and Z.
If we wish to take into account the length of the jump for each point on the conjugate depth curve, draw a line parallel
to the bed. The length of the line should be equal to the length of the jump, i.e. 3 to 5 times the height difference
between the conjugate depth and the water depth. The tips of these lines are joined to obtain a translated conjugate
depth curve which takes into account the length of the jump. The intersection of the downstream profile with the
translated conjugate depth gives the downstream end of the jump.
Thus, the jump takes place between A and Z.
Oblique Hydraulic Jump
Consider again the specific energy curve.
h
Curve plotted for a constant Q
w
lfl o
ca
iti
2
U1 / 2 g Specific Energy
r
bc
Su
U2
Hs h
2g
h1
Alternate depths
hc 2
U c / 2g
h1 hc
hc h2 2
U 2 / 2g Supercritical flow
h
h2 hc
Es or H s
Es H s Es or H s
It can be seen that when the flow is supercritical, a small variation in depth (say h) causes a large variation in kinetic
energy and, thus the specific energy (Es or Hs).
Therefore, in supercritical flow, a transition, such as a change in width or a change in direction, will provoke an abrupt
variation of flow depth and stationary, stable gravity waves will appear on the free surface.
Referring to the figure on the left,

consider the case of a supercritical
deflected by a side wall making an angle
with the approach channel.
A standing wave front forms making an
angle with the approach channel
direction. This is called an oblique
(hydraulic) jump. Note that this is
somewhat different than a classical
hydraulic jump due to the fact that the
flow is still subcritical downstream of
the wave front:
U1 U
Fr1 1 1
gh1 c1
U2 U
and Fr2 2 1
gh2 c2
The continuity equation
in the direction normal h1U1 h2U 2
to the wave front gives:
2 2
Neglecting the bottom friction, the momentum equation h h
Fn 21 22 q U 2n U1n
in the direction normal to the wave front gives:
U 1n U 2n
Froude numbers using the velocity components normal Fr
1
n
and Fr
2
n
to the oblique wave front are defined as: gh1 gh2

Note that in the direction tangent to the

wave front no momentum change takes
place. The equation of momentum in
tangential direction becomes:
F t
0 q U 2t U1t
This clearly shows that: U1t U 2t
Geometric considerations allow us to

write:
U1n U1 sin U 2n U 2 sin
U1n U 2n
U
t
U t
tan
1 2
tan
Combining continuity and momentum equations, one obtains h2 1

h1 2

1 8 Fr1n 2
1
the equation for change of depth across an oblique jump:
U1n U sin
In which the Froude number normal to the wave front is defined as: Fr1n 1 Fr1 sin
gh1 gh1

The angle of the wave front can be

expressed as:
1 1 h2 h2
sin 1
Fr1 2 h1 h1
Note that, for small variations of depth,

thus for gradual transitions, one gets:
1 c
sin 1
Fr1 U1
Using equation of continuity and

geometric relationships, the equation
for the oblique jump can also be written
as:
h2 U 1n tan
n
h1 U 2 tan
Combining two equations for change of

tan
1 8 Fr1n 2
3
tan
depth across an oblique jump, we can write:
2 tan 2 1 8 Fr1n 2
1
These derivations were originally carried out by Ippen (1949). He also experimentally verified the relationship above
which gives the relationship between and for contracting channels (only).
The relation ship between q and is plotted on the left.

Following observations can be made:
For all Froude numbers there exists a maximum value

for the angle of deflection, max.
For all values smaller than max, two values of are
possible. However, since the analysis is made for the
case the flow remains supercritical after the jump, i.e.
Fr2 > 1, we should consider only the values on the left
side (solid lines).
It is important to note that, any perturbation created by one wall will be reflected by the other wall and so on. To
study this behavior, we will consider two cases:
Asymmetrically converging channel, and
Symmetrically converging channel.

Reflection of Oblique Jumps in an Asymmetrical Channel Contraction
Consider the channel on the

left. The left wall is deflected
into the flow by an angle ,
while the right wall remains
straight.
tan 1
1 8 Fr1n 2
3
h2 tan 1 h2 h1
Fr1 tan 1
2 tan 2 1 1 8 Fr1n 2
1 h1 tan 1 Fr1 Fr2 1
tan 2
1 8 Fr2n 2
3
h3 tan 2 h3 h2
Fr2 tan 2 1
2 tan 2 2 1 8 Fr2n 2
tan 3
1 8 Fr3n 2
3
h3 tan 3 h3 h2
Fr3 tan 3 2
2 tan 2 3 1 8 Fr3n 2
and so on. If the contracting channel is sufficiently long, the wave reflection continues until the flow finally
becomes subcritical.

Reflection of Oblique Jumps in an Asymmetrical Channel Contraction
Consider the channel on the

left. The left wall is deflected
into the flow by an angle ,
while the right wall remains
straight.
tan 1
1 8 Fr1n 2
3
h2 tan 1 h2 h1
Fr1 tan 1
2 tan 2 1 1 8 Fr1n 2
tan 2
1 8 Fr2n 2
3
h3 tan 2 h3 h2
Fr2 tan 2 1
2 tan 2 2 1 8 Fr2n 2
tan 3
1 8 Fr3n 2
3
h3 tan 3 h3 h2
Fr3 tan 3 2
2 tan 2 3 1 8 Fr3n 2
and so on. If the contracting channel is sufficiently long, the wave reflection continues until the flow finally
becomes subcritical.

Reflection of Oblique Jumps in an Symmetrical Channel Contraction
View of Supercritical Flow in Curved Transition:

(a) Experimental Visualization of Standing Wave Patterns, after Ippen and Dawson (1951);
(b) Computer Visualization Based on 2D, Shock-Capturing, Numerical-Model Predictions
Causon D. M., C. G. Mingham and D. M. Ingram (1999), Advances in

Calculation Methods for Supercritical Flow in Spillway Channels, ASCE,
Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, Vol. 125, No. 10, pp. 1039-1050.

Designing a Symmetrical Channel Contraction for Supercritical Flow
A good channel contraction design

for supercritical flow should reduce
or eliminate the undesirable cross
wave pattern. This can be achieved
by choosing a linear contraction
length LT, thus by choosing a
contraction angle , such that the
positive waves emanating from
points A and A, due to converging
walls, arrive directly at points D
and D, where negative waves are
generated due to diverging walls.
Such a design is shown in the
figure on the left.
The choice of the angle depends

on the approach Froude number,
Fr1, and the contraction ratio B3/B1.
3/ 2
Based on continuity equation, and assuming that the flow remains B3 h1 U1 h1 Fr1

supercritical in the contracted section, i.e. Fr3 > 1, we can write: B1 h3 U 3 h3 Fr3
B1 B3
From geometric considerations , we also have the relationship: LT
2 tan
The angle to satisfy these two equations is calculated using an iterative procedure.
Gradually Varied Flow with Lateral Inflow
We will now consider the case of gradually varied flow with

lateral inflow. In the most general case, the discharge added
subtracted laterally affects both to the mass and the momentum
of the flow.
Consider the gradually varied flow with lateral inflow as shown
on the left.
dQ
The continuity equation q x
with lateral flow becomes: dx
q represents lateral discharge which can be positive if a

discharge is added, or negative if a discharge subtracted.
dQ dA dU
We can also write: q U A
dx dx dx
Equation of the momentum states that the sum of all forces is equal to the change in momentum:
F x FP W sin F f QU
Let us now analyze all the terms in this equation one by one.

The net hydrostatic pressure force will be: F P z P A z P dh A dh A
zP is the distance from the free surface to the

centroid of the flow area A:
The weight of the water prism

between two sections that are dx apart W sin sin P A dx S o A dx
is:
The rightmost side assumes that is small.
The friction force can be written as: F f o P dx S e A dx since o Rh S e
The change in the momentum can be QU Q dQ U dU QU qdx U cos

written as:
Note that qdx dQ
Note also that the lateral flow is entering or leaving the channel at an angle and with velocity U.
Let us insert above expression the equation of momentum, and simplify:
dh A S o A dx S e A dx Q dQ U dU QU qdx U cos
Q dQ U dU QU qdx U cos
dh S o S e dx
A A A

dh
So Se
Q dQ U dU QU qdx U cos
dx gAdx gAdx gAdx
dh
So Se
1
QU QdU UdQ dQdU QU q U cos
dx gAdx gAdx gA
dh QU QdU UdQ QU q U cos

So Se
dx gAdx gAdx gAdx gAdx gA
dh QdU UdQ q U cos

So Se
dx gAdx gAdx gA
This is the equation of free surface for a steady
dh U dU 1 dQ q U cos gradually varied flow with lateral inflow, which is also
So Se
dx g dx A dx gA called a steady spatially varied flow.
Q dQ
Recalling that: qdx dQ and U dU
A dA
Simplifying also second order terms AdA and dQdA, the spatially varied flow equation can be written as:
It can be verified that, this equation reduces to gradually varied

So Se q Q
2 2

1
U l cos flow formula when lateral flow is zero, q = 0.
dh
gA gA
dx
1
Q / A 2
Spatially varied flow equation can also be solved using the same
gA / B methods for solving gradually varied flow equation.

Example of Structures for Spatially Varied Flow: Side Channel Spillway
http://www.firelily.com/stuff/hoover/flood.control.html
Side channel spillway of Hoover Dam in Nevada as seen from the reservoir side.
http://www.tornatore.com/joel/pics/index.php?op=dir&directory=20040227
Side channel spillway of Hoover Dam in Nevada.

Example of Structures for Spatially Varied Flow: Side Channel Spillway
http://www.hprcc.unl.edu/nebraska/sw-drought-2003-photos1.html
Side channel spillway of Hoover Dam in Nevada, looking downstream.

Quiz No 1(5 minutes)
A steep channel is connected to a mild channel as

hn1 shown in figure. Both channels have a rectangular
cross section. The following data is given:
hn2
S o1 B1 B2 4.0m
hc
S o1 0.01 S o1 0.001
S o2
n1 n2 0.012m 1/ 3 s
Q 6m 3 / s hc 0.612m hn1 0.383m hn2 0.818m
The flow in steep channel is steady and uniform. Determine in which channel, steep or mild, the hydraulic jump will
take place.

Quiz No 1(5 minutes): Solution
A steep channel is connected to a mild channel as

hn1 shown in figure. Both channels have a rectangular
cross section. The following data is given:
hn2
B1 B2 4.0m S o1 0.01 S o1 0.001
S o1
hc
n1 n2 0.012m 1/ 3 s Q 6m 3 / s
S o2 hc 0.612m hn1 0.383m hn2 0.818m
The flow in steep channel is steady and uniform. Determine in which channel, steep or mild, the hydraulic jump will
take place.
Solution: Assume that the steady uniform flow continues all the way down to the point where the slope becomes
mild. Let us see if there is a jump at that point what would be the conjugate depth.
h1cj 1 Q 6 U 3.91
1 8Fr1 1 U1 3.91m / s Fr1 2.02
2

h1 2 B hn1 4.0 0.383 ghn1 9.81 0.383
h1cj
1
h1
2
1 8 Fr1 1
2

h1cj
1
2
0.383 1 8 2.02 1 0.92m
2
h1cj 0.92m hn2 0.818m A jump taking place at the point of slope change will be too strong. It can jump higher
than the normal depth in the channel. Therefore, the flow continues into the mild
channel without a jump and creates an M3 type profile up to a depth whose conjugate
depth is equal to the uniform flow depth of the mild channel.

Quiz No 2 (5 minutes)
Consider the channel on the left with the following

h1 data:
Q hc h1 0.288m H s1 0.301
hc z hc 0.129m H sc 0.193
z 0.12m
Determine if the flow is choked due to the positive step. What will be the flow depth over the step?

Quiz No 2 (5 minutes): Solution
Consider the channel on the left with the following

h1 data:
Q hc h1 0.288m H s1 0.301
hc z hc 0.129m H sc 0.193
z 0.12m
Determine if the flow is choked due to the positive step. What will be the flow depth over the step?
Solution: Assuming no singular energy losses due to the step, the energy grade line remains at the same level. Over
the step, the energy is reduced by an amount z.
H s1 z 0.301 0.12 0.181m H sc 0.193m

Thus the flow is choked. The flow will go through the critical depth over the step, i.e. h2 hc 0.129m

3355871

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

3355871

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

ENGR 691 73: Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels

Lecture 04: Nonuniform Flow

Yan Ding, Ph.D.

Course Notes by: Mustafa S. Altinakar and Yan Ding

Lecture 4. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 1

Transition Between Subcritical and Critical Flow

Equation of continuity q V1h1 V2 h2 Things

Lecture 4. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 4

By combining momentum equation and continuity equation, on gets:

Lecture 4. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 5

z1 z z2 and the equation of continuity: Q UA

Lecture 4. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 6

z1 z z2 and the equation of continuity: Q UA

Lecture 4. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 7

Substitute this expression back into the previous equation to get:

Lecture 4. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 8

The normal is equal to critical depth, hn = hc , when: 2 C 2 Rh S o gA / B

Consider the term in the denominator of Q / A 2

Now consider the term in the nominator of

gradually varied flow equation: h

Lecture 4. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 11

The critical depth in a rectangular channel is given by: 3 q2

Lecture 4. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 12

Water surface profiles are classified according to the bed slope.

So Sc Channel on Mild slope M type profile

Lecture 4. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 13

Convention for numbering branches:

When the water surface profile is

Lecture 4. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 14

Lecture 4. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 15

Lecture 4. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 16

Lecture 4. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 17

Normal depth becomes infinite Similar to M2 profile Similar to M3 profile

Lecture 4. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 18

Normal depth becomes infinite Similar to H2 profile Similar to H3 profile

Lecture 4. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 19

Note that the passage from subcritical flow to

Control point, as the name implies, is the point

Changing from a mild slope to a steep slope

Subcritical flow at a free overfall.

Lecture 4. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 22

This method can be applied in two ways:

Lecture 4. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 23

We have divided the reach under study into smaller

We will assume that the geometric properties of the

We will also assume that the depth at cross section i

The basic equation we are using is:

Since depth hi , invert elevation zi and the discharge

Let us now assume a depth hi+1 . Since the invert

Chezy equation: Se Manning Strickler equation: 4/3

Lecture 4. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 25

All these calculation can easily be carried out on a spread sheet.

Again considering average values we can write:

Lecture 4. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 26

Lecture 4. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 27

Lecture 4. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 29

1. Subcritical flow over a positive step Q

5. Subcritical flow through a contraction

7. Subcritical flow through an expansion

Lecture 4. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 30

Lecture 4. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 31

Lecture 4. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 32

Lecture 4. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 33

Lecture 4. Engr 691-73 Introduction to Free-Surface Hydraulics in Open Channels 34