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Flange : Bending
Web : Shear
Groove Weld
Horizontal Bridging
Cross Bridging
T T
20
dL
40
20
elastic
1% 2% 3%
strain,
Elastic Response
The proportionality constant is the modulus of elasticity E. For all
three types of structural steel, E = 29,000 ksi (kips per square inch).
When the tension becomes sufficiently large, then the steel begins
to have permanent deformation. This means that when the tension
load is released, the length change is not recovered back to original
length. The rod will be longer than the original length L. The
stress level where the permanent deformation begins is called the
yield stress, Fy. In the two most commonly used structural steel
types, Fy = 36 ksi for A36 steel and F y = 50 ksi for A572 Grade 50
steel.
Note that Fy = 36 ksi and Fu = 58 ksi. The graphs of the engineering
stress-strain curves for A572 Grade 50 steel is similar, with F y = 50
ksi and Fu = 65 ksi.
Yield Strength
At the end of linear range, if the rod is deformed further, the stresses are first
nearly constant, but then begin to increase again. The constant stress range is
called the plastic range. The range at which the stresses increase again is
called the strain-hardening range.
Linear analysis fail beyond this level.
The stresses will increase, but will eventually reach a peak value, which is
called the ultimate stress, Fu. After the stress reaches Fu, further deformation
in the rod will decreases the stress until the rod finally breaks.
post yield ductility contributes to the safety factors.
Use offset method as a convenient way. No physical meaning.
FY Basis for many design guidelines
Before 33 Ksi
Now 24-100 Ksi
Construction Process
Profiles in Steel
Name Sample Designation Size Range Features / Applications Remarks
Strengths
Structural Tees: WT 5 x 9.5 5: Nominal depth WT2 - WT18; Compression Bracing Split W
Cut from W MT 5 x 4.5 9.5, 4.5, 12.7: 4.5 - 179.5 #/ft Tension Trusses -shape
Cut from M ST 5 x 12.7 Weight/Linear Ft. Bending Lintels lengthwise
Cut from S MT2.5 MT7;
2.2 - 9.45 #/ft
ST1.5 ST12;
2.85 - 60.5 #/ft
SPRAYED Sprayed Fire Resistant Materials (SFRM) | Two Types: Reactive and Non-Reactive
Non-reactive $ Up to
May be used Not typically Easy to cover Care must be Applied to
exposed aesthetically complex taken to unpainted 4 hrs.
Mineral Fiber Overspray acceptable in areas/details achieve even steel 1 hr.
public areas Must mask application per inch
(Dry) & Can be
Cementitious
adjacent increasing
troweled areas thickness
(Wet) adds
Very Messy durability
but also
Interferes with weight
other trades
Reactive $$
Thin coat Brush or Limited fire- Steel Up to
allows steel spray applied. protection preparation to 1 Hr.
profile to Easy to cover duration may be $$$
(standard)
retain detail detail (around necessary
Thin-film and remain pipes, etc.) Can
Intumescent aesthetically achieve
Paint
pleasing Easy to repair
4 Hrs.,
Wet trade but is
attractive
decorative Must have costly
Epoxy Base finishes are proper
Intumescent available atmosphere Thicker
Industrial conditions at = more
time of passes
Application Epoxy Base application = more
has course cost
texture Overspray
must be
considered
An intumescent is a substance which swells as a result of heat exposure, thus increasing in volume, and decreasing in density
Material Information Appearance Installation Quality Surface Cost Fire
Preparation (Relative) Rating
Crack due to residual stresses at web-flange junction Residual stresses cracks at welds
Effect of Residual Stresses
Stresses accumulate,
residual stresses + applied stresses = failure
Localized failure due to overstressing
Stiffened and unstiffened elements
Stiffened elements have both edges connected and supported.
Unstiffened elements have one edge free
Look at b/t (length of sub-element to thickness)
Effect of localized failure on overall response
Failure of connections
1989 Loma-Prieta Earthquake - Bay Bridge San Francisco
Failure of connections
Steel Bridge Connection in Kobe, Japan 1995 Earthquake
Points to Remember-Physics
Just because you design it in a specific way, it
is not going to behave that way.
Cant fight city hall, especially mother nature.
Distinguish between real science and
empirical knowledge
Question Authority
Murphys law
Points to Remember-Codes
Many codes are empirically based, and
empirical knowledge works only under the
circumstances and specific conditions that it
was developed.
Experience and past history cant substitute
reality.
Extrapolation is dangerous.
Hope is not a Strategy.
Points to Remember-Calculations
Do not trust your calculator, computer, boss, co-
workers. Always look to see if the numbers make
sense.
Units are your best friends, always remember them and
be consistent throughout calculations.
Know why you are using an equation before actually
using it.
Write down and underline your assumptions. Always go
back to check them.
Write down the several steps needed prior to starting
calculations.
Use labels for your calculations.