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Nominal
measurements have no meaningful rank
order among values; but
are used for identifying various
categories that make up a variable (e.g.
blood group: O, A, B, AB)
Levels of Measurement
Ordinal
used to reflect rank order among
categories (e.g. SES: 1=low;
2=medium; 3=high)
Note: number used for indication
of rank order only.
Levels of Measurement
Interval
numbers used are more meaningful.
arithmetic operations (+ and -)
can be performed (e.g. temperature
in C or in F)
zero point arbitrarily defined -0
degrees F does not signify an
absence of heat (i.e. no TRUE ZERO)
Levels of Measurement
Ratio: most sophisticated level.
has all characteristics of interval
scale, but has absolute zero
indicating an absence of the
measured quantity (e.g. weight,
no. of public health specialists in a
district, age, etc.).
can be converted to lower level,
e.g. to ordinal scale.
Data presentation
Tables
frequency tables (one-way table)
cross-tabulations (two-way table)
Diagrams
pie chart
bar chart
histogram/frequency polygon
line graph
scatter diagram
map
Frequency table: parity among
women attending ANC
Parity Frequency Relative
frequency (%)
0 4 3.1
1 27 21.0
2 27 21.0
3 20 15.6
4 16 12.5
5 17 13.4
6 12 9.5
7 2 1.6
8 1 0.8
9 2 1.6
Total 128 100
Cross-tabulation: HIV status
by oral contraceptive (OC)
HIV status
10%
28%
40%
Bar Chart: mode of delivery
(n=600)
478
500
Number of births
400
300
200
100 65 57
0
Normal Forceps Caesarean
delivery section
Histogram: percentage of clinics
located some distance (in min)
from a referral hosp.
Frequency polygon
Frequency distribution curve
Line Graph: daily no. of malaria
patients at health facilities
Population of Tanzania by Year
of Census
Scatter plot: weight of 5-year
olds by annual family income
Map: IMR in selected regions of
TZ
135
105 70
130
160
130
100
140 160