MAGNETIC

PARTICAL
TESTING
 Principles of
MPI
Detection is surface or slightly subsurface
discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials.
It is based on the principle that magnetic
flux in a magnetized object is locally
distorted by the presence of a discontinuity.
This distortion causes some of the
magnetic field to exit and re-enter the
object at the discontinuity.
This phenomenon is called magnetic flux
leakage.
Flux leakage is capable of attracting finely
divided particles of magnetic materials,
Principles of
MPI
The test itself consists of three basic
operations:

1. magnetizing the test object,

2. applying magnetic particles in a dry or wet
(a) bar magnet
form and
3.containing
examining a the test object under suitable
machined
lighting slot and interpreting and
conditions,
corresponding
evaluating fluxindications
the test
leakage field
(b) a crack in a
longitudinally
magnetized object
produces poles that
Principles of
MPI
Disadvantages

1) The ability to locate subsurface

discontinuities is very limited.
2) The method cannot be used on nonmagnetic
materials such as glass, copper, porcelain,
aluminum, plastics, etc.
3) Objects with large cross sections take a very
high current to test.
4) it is usually necessary to demagnetize an
object following testing.
Magnetic field
Theory
Magnetic Domains
Materials that can be magnetized possess
atoms regions called magnetic domains.
These domains have a positive and a negative
polarity at opposite ends.
If the material is not magnetized, the
domains are randomly oriented When the
material is subjected to a magnetic field, the
domains orient or align themselves with the
external magnetic field. The material then
acts as a magnet.

(a) non-magnetized material, (b)

magnetized material
Magnetic field
Theory
Magnetic Poles
A magnet has the property of attracting
ferromagnetic materials. The ability to
attract (or repel) is not uniform over the
surface of the magnet but is concentrated at
localized areas.
In every magnet, there are two primary poles
called north and south.
This characteristic pattern illustrates the
term LINES OF FORCE used to describe a
flux field.
 Magnetic field
Theory
There are a number of important properties associated with
magnetic lines of force:

1. They form continuous loops, which are never broken but

must complete themselves through some path.
2. They do not cross one another.
3. They are considered to have direction, leaving the north
pole, traveling through the air and entering through the south
pole. They travel through the magnet from south to north
and through the air from north to south, you might say.
4. Their density decreases with increasing distance from the
poles.
5. They seek the path of least resistance (reluctance) in
completing their loop.

When a bar magnet is broken into two or more pieces, new

magnetic poles are formed. The opposing poles attract one
another as shown in Figure
 Materials
All metals are affected to some degree by
magnetic fields. Matter is made up of atoms with
a positively charged nucleus surrounded by a
field, or cloud, of negatively charged electrons.
The electron field is in continual motion,
spinning around the nucleus. When the material
is subjected to a magnetic field, the electron
orbits are distorted to some degree. The amount
of this when subjected to an external magnetic
field provides a means of classifying materials
into three groups: diamagnetic, paramagnetic
and ferromagnetic.

Most materials can be classified as,

ferromagnetic, diamagnetic or paramagnetic.
Materials
Diamagnetic
Diamagnetic metals have a very weak
and negative susceptibility to magnetic
fields. Diamagnetic materials are
slightly repelled by a magnetic field and
the material does not retain the
magnetic properties when the external
field is removed. Most elements in the
periodic table, including copper, silver,
and gold, are diamagnetic.
 Materials
Paramagnetic
Paramagnetic metals have a small and
positive susceptibility to magnetic
fields. These materials are slightly
attracted by a magnetic field and the
material does not retain the magnetic
properties when the external field is
removed. Paramagnetic materials
include magnesium, molybdenum,
lithium, and tantalum.
Ferromagnetic materials

Ferromagnetic materials have a large

and positive susceptibility to an
external magnetic field. They exhibit a
strong attraction to magnetic fields
and are able to retain their magnetic
properties after the external field has
been removed. When a ferromagnetic
material is in the unmagnitized state,
the domains are nearly randomly
organized and the net magnetic field
for the part as a whole is zero. When a
magnetizing force is applied, the
 ELECTRICALLY INDUCED
MAGNETISM
An important source of magnetism is electrical
induction. When electric current flows through a
conductor such as copper bar or wire, a magnetic
field is formed around the conductor as shown in
figure. The direction of the magnetic lines of force
is always 90 degrees from the direction of the
current flow. When the conductor has a uniform
shape, the flux density or number of lines of force
per unit area, will be uniform along the length of
the conductor and it uniformly decreases as the
distance from the conductor increases.
ELECTRICALLY INDUCED
MAGNETISM
Circular Magnetism Direct induction (Head
Shot)
By electrically energizing a ferromagnetic
object, we can induce a magnetic field around it.
If we energize the ends of the longitudinal axis
of the object, we induce a circular magnetism in
it that is useful for magnetic particle testing
(see Figure). We can also induce a circular
magnetism that is useful for testing by inserting
a central conductor through the inside diameter
of a hollow object, which will result in a circular
magnetic field, also (see Figure ).
ELECTRICALLY INDUCED
MAGNETISM
A characteristic of circumferential
magnetic fields is that the magnetic flux
lines form complete loops without
magnetic poles. Because magnetic
particles are only attracted to and held
where the flux lines enter and leave the
object's surface (where there is flux
leakage), indications do not occur unless
a discontinuity crosses the flux lines.
ELECTRICALLY INDUCED
MAGNETISM
Inducing Circular Magnetism into an Object
Figure illustrates a method for inducing a
circular field using a magnetic particle testing
unit. The test object is clamped between the
contact plates so that electric current passes
through it. When the tubes are tested by
passing a current through them, the magnetic
flux rises to the outside surface. This allows us
to test for discontinuities running parallel to
the long axis of the test object.
ELECTRICALLY INDUCED
MAGNETISM
Inducing Circular Magnetism into an Object

DC Supply is preferred for magnetization. DC

requirement is based on the diameter.

For diameter upto 5 : 700 to 900 Amp/inch

diameter.
For diameter 5 to 10 : 500 to 700 Amp/inch
diameter.
For diameter 10 to 15 : 300 to 500 amp/inch
diameter.
ELECTRICALLY
Longitudinal INDUCED
Magnetism Indirect
MAGNETISM
Induction (Coil Shot)

Electric current can be used to induce

longitudinal fields in ferromagnetic
materials.
The magnetic field around a conductor
is oriented in a lengthwise direction by
forming the conductor into a coil (see
Figure).
Application of the right hand rule,
shows that the magnetic field at any
point within the coil is in a lengthwise
direction.
ELECTRICALLY INDUCED
MAGNETISM
Longitudinal Magnetism Indirect Induction
(Coil Shot)

Right Hand Rule

ELECTRICALLY INDUCED
Longitudinal Magnetism Indirect
MAGNETISM
Induction (Coil Shot)

When a ferromagnetic object is placed

inside a coil carrying an electric current
(see Figure 14), the magnetic flux lines
concentrate themselves in a longitudinal
direction.
Poles at each end characterize an object
that has been longitudinally magnetized.
When a longitudinally magnetized object
contains a transverse discontinuity, a
leakage field is produced that attracts
magnetic particles and forms an
indication.
ELECTRICALLY INDUCED
MAGNETISM
Longitudinal Magnetism Indirect
Induction (Coil Shot)

Figure illustrates a typical coil used for

magnetic particle test systems used to
locate transverse discontinuities. The
coil is called a solenoid.
ELECTRICALLY INDUCED
MAGNETISM
L/D Ratio

To induce an adequate longitudinal

magnetic field with a coil, the long
dimensions of the test object should be at
least twice as great as the short
dimension.
If not, end pieces should be added and
the long axis of the test object should be
parallel to the coil axis.
The number of turns in the coil and the
number of amperes determine the
effective field created.
 45,000
NI
ELECTRICALLY INDUCED
L
D
MAGNETISM
L/D Ratio

45,000 35,000
NI NI
L L 2
D D
where:
K= 45,000 or 35,000 depending on the L/D ratio of the
N= number of coil turns
= amperes
= component length
D= component diameter
TYPE OF MAGNETIZING
CURRENTS
Several types of magnetizing currents
became available:

alternating current,
half-wave direct current and
full-wave current.
TYPE OF MAGNETIZING
The terms half-wave rectified direct
CURRENTS
current and full-wave rectified direct
current are used for alternating current
"rectified" to produce the half wave and
full-wave direct current.
Half wave current is a unidirectional
rectified single-phase alternating current
that produces a pulsating unidirectional
magnetic field Full wave direct current is
a single-phase or three-phase alternating
current rectified to produce direct
current characteristics of penetration
and flow.
TYPE OF MAGNETIZING
Alternating Current
CURRENTS
Alternating current is useful in many
applications because it is commercially
available in voltages ranging form 110 to 440
volts. Electrical circuitry to produce alternating
current is simple and relatively inexpensive
because it only requires transforming
commercial power into low voltage, high
amperage magnetizing current.

Figure shows the waveform of alternating

current. In one cycle, the current flows from
zero to a maximum positive value and then
drops back to zero. At zero, it reverses direction
and goes to a maximum negative peak and
returns to zero.
TYPE OF MAGNETIZING
Use of Alternating Current in Magnetic Particle
CURRENTS
Testing
There are three primary advantages to using
alternating current as a magnetizing source.
1) The current reversal causes an inductive
effect that concentrates the magnetizing
flux at the object surface (called the skin
effect) and it provides enhanced indications
of the test surface discontinuities.
(2) The magnetic fields produced by
alternating current are also much easier to
remove during demagnetization.
(3) The pulsing effect of the flux caused by
the current reversals agitates the particles
applied to the test object's surface. This
agitation increases the particle mobility,
allowing more particles to collect at the flux
TYPE OF MAGNETIZING
CURRENTS
Half-Wave Direct Current (HWDC)

When single-wave alternating current is

passed through a simple rectifier, the
reversed flow of current is blocked or
clipped. This produces a series of current
pulses that start at zero, reach a
maximum point, drop back to zero and
then pause until the next cycle begins.
The result is a varying current that flows
only in one direction. Figure shows the
waveform for half-wave direct current.
TYPE OF MAGNETIZING
Half-Wave Direct Current (HWDC)
CURRENTS
Half-wave direct current has penetrating
power comparable to single-phase full
wave direct current. The pulsing effect of
the rectified wave produces maximum
mobility for the magnetic particles; dry
method tests are enhanced by this effect.
Another distinct advantage of half-wave
direct current is the simplicity of its
electrical components. It can be easily
combined with portable and mobile
alternating current equipment for
welding, construction and casting tests.
 TYPE OF MAGNETIZING
Half-Wave
CURRENTS Direct Current (HWDC)

One of the disadvantages is the

problem in demagnetization: the
current does not reverse so it cannot
be used for demagnetizing.

Alternating current can be used to

remove some of the residual
magnetism but the skin effect of
alternating current and the deeper
penetration of the half-wave direct
current cause incomplete
TYPE OF MAGNETIZING
Full-Wave Direct Current (FWDC)
CURRENTS
It is possible for electrical circuitry to
not only block (rectify) the negative
flowing current, and invert it so that the
number of positive pulses is doubled.
Figure shows the wave form of single-
phase full-wave rectified alternating
current. The resulting current is usually
called single-phase full-wave direct
current (FWDC).
Demagnetizat
ionconducting a magnetic particle
After
inspection, it is usually necessary to
demagnetize the component. Remanent
magnetic fields can:
1) affect machining by causing cuttings to
cling to a component.
2) interfere with electronic equipment such
as a compass.
create a condition known as "arc blow" in
the welding process. Arc blow may cause
the weld arc to wonder or filler metal to be
repelled from the weld.
Measuring Magnetic
Fields
When performing a magnetic particle
inspection, it is very important to be able to
determine the direction and intensity of the
magnetic field.
As direction of the magnetic field should be
between 45 and 90 degrees to the longest
dimension of the flaw for best detectability.
The two devices commonly used in
magnetic particle inspection are the
field indicator
Hall-effect meter (also called a gauss
meter)
Measuring Magnetic
Fields
Field Indicators

Field indicators are small mechanical

devices that utilize a soft iron vane that is
deflected by a magnetic field.
Measuring Magnetic
Fields(Gauss/Tesla) Meter
Hall-Effect

A Hall-effect meter is an electronic device

that provides a digital readout of the
magnetic field strength in gauss or tesla
units.
Magnetic Particle
Equipments
Permanent magnets
Permanent magnets are sometimes used for
magnetic particle inspection as the source
of magnetism.
The two primary types of permanent
magnets are bar magnets and horseshoe
(yoke) magnets.
These industrial magnets are usually very
strong and may require significant strength
to remove them from a piece of metal.
Magnetic Particle
Equipments
Electromagnets
An electromagnetic yoke is a very common
piece of equipment that is used to establish
a magnetic field.
It is basically made by wrapping an
electrical coil around a piece of soft
ferromagnetic steel. A switch is included in
the electrical circuit so that the current
and, therefore, the magnetic field can be
turned on and off.
Magnetic Particle
Equipments
Prods
Prods are handheld electrodes that are
pressed against the surface of the
component being inspected to make
contact for passing electrical current
through the metal. The current passing
between the prods creates a circular
magnetic field around the prods that can be
used in magnetic particle inspection.
Magnetic Particle
Equipments
Portable Coils and Conductive Cables
Coils and conductive cables are used to
establish a longitudinal magnetic field
within a component. When a preformed coil
is used, the component is placed against
the inside surface on the coil. Coils
typically have three or five turns of a
copper cable within the molded frame.
 Stationary Equipment
for MPI
The most common stationary system is the
wet horizontal (bench) unit. Wet horizontal
units are designed to allow for batch
inspections of a variety of components.
 Stationary Equipment
for MPI
To inspect a part using a head-shot, the
part is clamped between two electrical
contact pads. The magnetic solution, called
a bath, is then flowed over the surface of
the part.
 Stationary Equipment
for MPI
When the coil is used to establish a
longitudinal magnetic field within the part,
the part is placed on the inside surface of
the coil. Just as done with a head shot, the
bath is then flowed over the surface of the
part.
 Stationary Equipment
for MPI
The wet horizontal unit can also be used to
establish a circular magnetic field using a
central conductor. This type of a setup is
used to inspect parts that have an open
center, such as gears, tubes, and other ring-
shaped objects.
 Lights for MPI
Magnetic particle inspection can be
performed using particles that are highly
visible under white light conditions or
particles that are highly visible under
ultraviolet light conditions.
 Lights for MPI
A light intensity of at least 1000 lux (100 fc)
is recommended when visible particles are
used, but a variety of light sources can be
used.

For UV lights used in component

evaluations, the normally accepted
intensity is 1000mwatts/cm2 when
measured at 15 inches from the filter face
(requirements can vary from 800 to
1200mwatts/cm2).
 Magnetic Field
Indicators
Pie Gage
The pie gage is a disk of highly permeable
material divided into four, six, or eight
sections by nonferromagnetic material. The
divisions serve as artificial defects that
radiate out in different directions from the
center. The diameter of the gage is 3/4 to 1
inch. The divisions between the low carbon
steel pie sections are to be no greater than
1/32 inch
 Magnetic Field
Indicators
Slotted Strips
Slotted strips, also known as Burmah-
Castrol Strips, are pieces of highly
permeable ferromagnetic material with
slots of different widths. They are placed
on the test object as it is inspected. The
indications produced on the strips give
the inspector a general idea of the field
strength in a particular area.
 Magnetic Particles
Dry Magnetic Particles
Dry magnetic particles can typically be
purchased in red, black, gray, yellow and
several other colors so that a high level of
contrast between the particles and the part
being inspected can be achieved.
 Magnetic Particles
Wet Magnetic Particles
Magnetic particles are also supplied in a
wet suspension such as water or oil. The
wet magnetic particle testing method is
generally more sensitive than the dry
because the suspension provides the
particles with more mobility and makes it
possible for smaller particles to be used
since dust and adherence to surface
contamination is reduced or eliminated.
The wet method also makes it easy to
 Indication of a crack in a saw blade

Examples of Visible Dry

MPI

Before and after inspection

Indication of a crack in a pictures of cracks
saw blade emanating from a hole
 Examples of
Indication of a crack in a saw blade

Fluorescent
WFMPI

indication of cracks at a
indication of a crack in a fastener hole.
bearing.