Mechanical Design

Fundamentals
ET05
Contents

Base Engine Design

Structural Design
Cooling Systems
Friction & Wear
Drives
Base Engine Design

A possible powertrain design brief .

Target vehicle definition
Engine size and/or number of cylinders
Technical features
Power targets
Fuel economy targets
Noise - refinement targets
Market territory (emissions)
 Base Engine Design

The brief will of

course also
include .
Time
constraints
Cost targets
Weight & size
constraints
 Base Engine Design
Tractive Effort Graph
Engine Power and Torque Requirements
30
first gear
fifth gear

25
Engine Power cut off
0%
Envelope 16%
32%
48%
20 64%
100%
Force (in KN)

second gear
third gear
15 Geared Engine forth gear
Torque Curves

10 Vehicle Force
Requirements
5

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Velocity (in m/s)
Base Engine Design
Engine Size Determination
BMEP (bar) = (torque (Nm) * 0.1257)/capacity (lt)
capacity (lt) = (torque (Nm) * 0.1257)/bmep (bar)
BMEP
Naturally Aspirated SI 9 to 13.5 bar
Turbocharged SI . 14 to 20 bar
Naturally Aspirated CI . 7.0 to 10.0 bar
Turbocharged CI . 12.0 to 20.0 bar
BMEP selection dependent on materials knowledge, engineering
expertise, experience
Cylinder Number = capacity (lt)/cylinder size (lt)
Optimum cylinder size combustion system, engine speed
(typically 300 to 500 cc passenger car)
 Base Engine Design
Cylinder Configuration: 1st & 2nd order
Force & moment balancing out-of-balance forces
Packaging
Market
 Base Engine Design
Bore & Stroke
Seek compact design minimum cylinder
surface area
Bore/Stroke ratio 0.8 to 1.2, typically 1.0
(square)
Control out-of balance forces
High speed short stroke, large bore
(race engines)
Low speed long stroke, small bore
(marine engines)
Enable mixing & combustion
Large bore more mixing (& charge
heating) time

Manufacturing constraints
Cylinder spacing on existing production lines
Base Engine Design

Chamber
Optimisation

Exhaust & Emissions

Management
Induction
Optimisation

System Development
- Mechanical Design
Fuel Delivery
Mechanical Design

Structural Design
Cooling
Friction & Wear (Lubrication)
Front End Drives (PAS, AirCon, Alternator)

Constraints
Manufacturing
Parts Sourcing (internal & external)
Time & Cost
 Structural Design

Design Considerations Cylinder Block & Head

Materials grey cast iron,

aluminium alloys
Combustion loading
Ancillary loading
Mounting
Cooling
Vibration attenuation

Block Head Interface > Gas & water sealing, compression ratio
Structural Design

Design Considerations Piston, Con Rod & Crankshaft

Gallery or
under crown
cooling

Cross & oblique split

Sintered/fracture split
Structural Design

Design Considerations Piston, Con Rod & Crankshaft

Structural Design

Design Considerations Piston, Con Rod & Crankshaft

Main bearings at each inter cylinder

location (5 bearings / 4 cylinders)
reduces crank flexure noise (rumble)

Bearing diameters as large as possible

give maximum bearing overlap for given
crank throw crank strength limited by
lube oil shearing constraints at high
bearing surface velocities
Cooling

With engine cooling we are trying to achieve the following:

High thermal efficiencies are obtained from the adiabatic

compression and expansion of the cylinder gases;
In practical engines some heat loss occurs during the
compression and expansion strokes, thus limiting the thermal
efficiency.
Ideally wed like to minimise these heat losses.

Heat loss during combustion reduces the peak cylinder pressures

Ideally, wed like to minimise these heat losses.

Rates of heat loss to the coolant are greatest when the engine is
operated at full load but before the coolant has warmed up.
This reduces fuel economy so ideally wed like a coolant that
heated up quickly.
Cooling
With engine cooling we are trying to avoid the following:

Abnormal combustion caused by hot spots on the cylinder and piston

surfaces.
Melting the engine!
The melting point of aluminium is 6600C (933K) and the melting
point of iron is 15380 (1831K). The cycle averaged cylinder gas
temperature in the gasoline engine is typically around 650-700K so
an un-cooled aluminium engine should melt!
Breaking the engine!
Youngs Modulus for aluminium is 70,000Mpa at room temperature,
but drops to around 60,000Mpa at 650K (15% drop in modulus) The
percentage drop in modulus is similar for iron 205,000Mpa at room
temperature, around 180,000Mpa at 650K .
Warping the engine!
The linear expansion coefficient for aluminium alloys is roughly
twice that of iron. Excessive heat could cause an aluminium
cylinder head to distort relative to the engine block.
Valves can also warp in their valve guides.
Cooling
For lower speed engines, cycle average engine component
temperatures are typically:

Cylinder liner at TDC 600 K

Cylinder liner at BDC 400 K
Cylinder head 500 K

Piston crown ~ 500 K

Piston skirt ~ 400 K

Cylinder block coolant 350 to 370 K

Exhaust valve head 1000 K

Exhaust valve stem 800 K
Cooling
The cooling process;

>Sub-cooled boiling (where small bubbles are formed that

subsequently collapse back into the fluid) is an important part of
effective cooling. The onset of full on film boiling (that may damage
the engine through overheating) is controlled by allowing pressure to
build up in the system.

Most cooling systems are single circuit systems. Advanced cooling

concepts include dual circuit cooling. Separate cooling circuits are
supplied for the cylinder head and the block. The block temperature
is kept higher than the cylinder head to reduce friction losses at the
ring pack.

Engine cooling (and cabin heating) management during warm up is

critical for exhaust emissions control
Cooling

Engine
Block/Cylinder
Head Assembly
Cooling

Radiator Assembly
Friction & Wear
Friction

Friction losses within the engine increase with engine speed

Friction does not mean pumping loop losses nor ancillary

power losses although the they are often included together

To give an indication of the magnitude of the problem typically

a 5.7 litre engine fitted to a car traveling at 50 mph the brake
power output is 23 kW and the friction power dissipated within
the engine is 9 kW. (~ 35%) The power consumed in the pumping
loop is 6.7 kW.

For another perspective, take a 1.6 gasoline engine at 5000

rpm. Eg 2
N N
tfmep(bar ) 0.97 0.15 0.05
1000 1000
= 2.97 bar at 5000 rpm (~30%)
Friction & Wear
Friction

Where specifically are the losses caused ?

60% of the friction losses are due to the piston assembly, 25%
due to the valve train and 15% due to the crankshaft.

2/3 of the friction losses due to the piston are due to the piston
rings and the remainder due to the piston wrist and the piston
skirt.

It is clear then that piston friction is a significant cause of

engine friction (~40% in the rings alone)
Friction & Wear
Lubrication Regimes

To consider the friction losses we must consider the 3 regimes for oil
lubricated sliding;

BOUNDARY LUBRICATION: with low viscosity oil, or low sliding

velocity or high bearing pressure, the two sliding surfaces remain in
close contact in spite of the lubrication and the coefficient of friction is
high (< 0.1).
MIXED LUBRICATION: for a given bearing pressure and oil viscosity,
sufficient sliding velocity will result in most of the two sliding surfaces
being separated by an oil film with only the asperities (peaks) being in
contact. The coefficient of friction reduces towards a value of 0.001.
HYDRODYNAMIC LUBRICATION: with sufficient oil viscosity and
sliding velocity the two surfaces are entirely separated by a film of oil.
This film is generated by the relative motion of the surfaces rather than
a pressurised source of oil. Thin films have the lowest coefficient of
friction.
Friction & Wear
 Friction & Wear
At TDC and BDC the oil film
thickness drops to 0.1m due
to the decreased position
velocity and thus the
lubrication becomes near
boundary lubrication and the
coefficient of friction
increases.
Half way between TDC and
BDC the piston velocity is at
its maximum, and the oil
viscosity is chosen to
ensure hydrodynamic
lubrication. The oil film
thickness is of the order of
2m
Friction & Wear
Wear

It is clear that the greatest wear will occur with boundary and
mixed lubrication.
This occurs most with the extremes of the piston stroke
(particularly at TDC where gas loads are greatest) and also in the
valve gear.

A sufficient quantity of the correct viscosity oil is needed to

maintain hydrodynamic lubrication in the crankshaft.

But when the engine is started from cold, there may be a delay in
the supply of oil to all the components, particularly at the top of the
engine.
Thus the cold engine may be operating with more boundary
and mixed lubrication than is desirable. Hence the explanation
for the commonly known fact that engines wear most when they
are cold.
Friction & Wear
Lubrication Circuits Wet Sump

From the A mechanical

filter, the oil pump lifts oil from
passes to the the sump and
main gallery, passes it to a filter
an internal via a pressure
pipe that runs relief valve.
the full length Oil pressure is
of the engine. typically around 1
bar at idle and
more than 3 bar by
Several litres of 2000 rpm.
oil is stored in
the sump with
the wet sump
system
Friction & Wear
Lubrication Circuits Wet Sump

From the Main Gallery to;

Main Bearings
then to Big End
then to Small End
then to timing gears

Camshaft Bearings
Friction & Wear
Lubrication Circuits Dry Sump (High Performance)

A separate oil
storage tank
which is kept full
(so oil doesnt
slop around
during rapid
manoeuvres).

Oil is taken from

the storage tank
and circulated
around the engine
using a high
pressure
circulation pump.
 Friction & Wear
Lubrication Circuits Dry Sump (High Performance)
Keeping most of
The addition of a the oil out of the
water-cooled oil sump avoids
cooler is easy performance
with the dry losses due to
sump system. oil-churning.

Oil that drains

through the
engine is lifted
from the sump by
a large scavenge
pump and
returned to the oil
storage tank
Front End Design

Cam drive systems are either chain

or belt ;
Chain does not stretch as much
as belt
Belt is less noisy than chain
Cam drives can include other
systems;
fuel high pressure pump
oil pump
Front End Design

Serpent Design Issues;

Belt vibration
Assembly (replacement)
Tension control (slippage )
Thank you for listening