Stone Column

Stone Column
Dr. M. Hafez
soil88@gmail.com
Stone Column / Vibro Replacement Process
SCOPE OF STUDY
What is Stone column?
Introduction, Installation, Construction,

Consideration
How to Design Stone column?
Theoretical background & Design Examples
Where Stone column has been applied?
Studies of three real stone columns function

1 WHAT IS STONE COLUMN?
Definition of Stone-Column
Process of Vibro-Compaction of stone or other materials, instead of
coarse-granular material as which is conducted in Normal-Vibro-
Compaction , introduces STONE-COLUMNS.
Stone-Columns,Vibro-Concrete Column(VCC) and Geotextile-
Encased Column(GEC) are diffrent types of stone.
They are mainly used for improving soft clays,silts and silty-sands.
It is believed that this method was used first in France in 1830s.this
method is in wide range of use especially in Europe since 1950s.
Function of Stone-Column
Stone columns are in use in diffrent types of applications , such as : (1)
stabilizing Foundation soils to support embankments, (2) supporting
retaining structures, abutments structures, (3) landslide stabilization
and reducing liquefaction potential of clean sands, (4) reducing
primary consolidation time under proper conditions.
Stress Stress
f - Mat/Pile Cap Pressure f - Mat/Pile Cap Pressure
p Stress Induced to Piles c Stone Column Stress
s Soil Stress
Idealized stress distribution Idealized stress distribution
pattern for deep foundation pattern for stone column systems
Construction of Stone-Column
Stone-Column construction concludes partial replacement of
unsuitable subsurface soil with a compacted vertical column of stone
that usually completely enters the weak layer.
Vibro-Replacement or Wet Process uses jet of water in the procedure,
if used without jetting water, the process is known as Vibro-
Displacement or Dry Process.
The stone is densified by using a vibrating probe which in many cases
is called Vibroflot or Poker. The hole may be advanced using water jet
or air jet depends on type of construction.
Construction of Stone-Column
The probe typically varies in diameter between 360 to 400 millimeters and
mostly due to erosion and lateral compaction.
the excavated hole is slightly larger than probe.
The hole is usually backfilled in 30 to 120 centimeters elevations with the
probe usually is left inside the hole.
Stone is dumped from ground surface and falls through circular space
between side of enlarged hole and probe.
Each lift is repenetrated for several times to densify the stone and force the
stone into the surrounding soil.
The procedure continues until completion of a column of stone up to
ground surface.
Performance Mechanism of Stone-Column
15 to 35 percent of weak soil is replaced by stone.
Compressibility of medium will be reduced.
Shear strength of soil will be increased.
Designing load is usually between 20 to 50 tons.
Bulging happens in perpendicular axis to the stone column axe of
construction and due to confinement of soil from lateral movement ,
vertical settlement will be reduced with the use of concept of plane and
vertical stress.
International opinions on utilization of Stone-Column
Stone columns are specifically used in stabilizing large area load such
as Embankments , Tanks, Fills
The most economical and also the least hazardous geotechnical length
of a stone column usually can be reached in 6 to 10 meters.
Deep foundation is considered if the required length exceeds 10
meters.
Organic soil introduces high compressibility and hence large vertical
deformation will happen. Skip vibro-compaction method in presence of
1 or 2 times soil height over column diameter.
International opinions on utilization of Stone-Column
Stone column should be applied to soil with undrained shear strength
as low as 7 KN/m2 so as the stone column reinforces the medium, the
shear strengths will be more as 50 to 100 KN/m2.
If the shear strengths is as more as the upper limit after appliance of
techniques, there is no need to perform stone column improvement
since the soil is strong enough to withstand the load.
Advancing bores for Stone-Column
There are many different types of techniques which are introduced to construct
the stone columns however they are all similar in principals.
The three stages where all these methods agree on are: Excavation, Replacement
and Compaction.
The main excavation methods are : (1) Vibro-Replacement Wet - ,
(2) Vibro-Displacement Dry , (3) Rammed Stone Column , (4)
Sand Compaction Pile
Vibro- Replacement
A hole is advanced by using the jet force down to desired depth.
Adding stone in increments of 30 to 120 centimeters and then densified by using
an electrical or mechanical vibrator located at the end of the bore-probe.
This method is suited the best in very soft to firm soil and at a high groundwater
table.
Jet water is also important for stabilizing the hole , ease of penetration of vibrator
and evacuation of loos soil from the hole.
Large amount of water used for this method makes it uneconomical and later on
this large amount needs to be disposed which sometimes due to environmental
regulation is restricted.
Vibro- Displacement
Absence of water jet is the key difference between Vibro-Displacement and
Vibro-Replacement method.
Water table needs to be low in dry method.
Dry method is more economical than wet process however when stability of bore
is in question , inevitably wet process will be a better choice.
In use of dry method, the soil shall have 40 to 60 KN/m2 shear strength that is
why in use of vibro-Displacement technique , stability of bore is always on
question.
Usually the diameter of wet bores are larger than their counterparts and this leads
to a higher load design per area for wet bores.
Rammed Stone-Column
Rammed stone columns are made through driving an open or
closed end pipe in the ground or boring hole to form a casing
and a mixture of sand and stone is placed into the hole in
increments and rammed using heavy falling weight. This
method was tried first in Belgium.
Sand Compaction Pile
This method was first introduced in Japan.
This method is mainly used for stabilization of soft clays in presence
of high water table.
The pile is constructed using driving a steel case down to the desired
elevation by means of a heavy vibratory hammer located at the top of
the pile. As the pile is being driven, the casing is filled with sand. The
casing is then repeatedly extracted and redriven partially using the
vibratory hammer. When the sand is fully placed into the casing, the
steel case permanently removed.
VIBRATOR
Stone columns are generally constructed using a probe either electric
or hydraulic cylindrical shaped vibrating probe.
it is consist of an essential hydraulic or electric motor mounted on a
cylindrical casing approximately 36 to 46 centimeter in diameter and 2
to 4.5 meters in length.
The motor serves a set of rotating eccentric weights which provides
the lateral and compaction forces. The lateral forces depending on the
specific unit selected maybe between 12 to 28 tons.
Heavy wear plates are added to the side of the vibrator protecting it
from excessive wear during raising and lowering from ground.
VIBRATOR
The vibrator is suspended from boom of a crane. A 10 meter vibrating probe can
be easily handled using a 40 ton crane with a 12 meter boom.
Penetration of the probe is accomplished by vibration, water jetting and dead
weights.
The new vibro units are developed which are self-contained are extensively are
used in Germany as where bottom-feed capability, hydraulic jack maneuver for
boom which extends downward thrust ,has been attached together and makes a
pull-down rig which does not need a crane.
Bottom-feed is usually possible using an eccentric tube adjacent to the probe
serving sand, stone, concrete or any other required material.
Stone-Column Construction
Advancing the bore to desired elevation.
The chosen elevation, must lay on firm strata rather than soft strata according to
less settlement prediction for firm strata and full transmission of load applied at
the head of stone column to the toe.
Preaugering the stiff clay and silt since the probe can not penetrate to these type
of layers in economic sense, however evaluation of expenses needs to be done
before renting the auger rig.
Flushing may be a good practice to remove silt at the bottom of the whole by
raising and falling the probe for 2 or 3 times.
Flushing surely will increase the diameter of bore.
In presence of Organic soil ,it is inevitable to remove deleterious material for
their low quality specifications to tolerate settlement and loads.
Leaving the probe within the whole is in question! Some prefer leaving the probe
in the bore to provide less collapsing risk and some others raise the probe to give
larger area for stone to be replaced at the bottom of hole.
It is almost practical in many opinions that collapsing is a higher risk to take care
of , so many contractors prefer to leave the probe within the bore.
Gradation of the stone in use greatly depends on sources of aggregates available,
subsurface condition and contractors policies.
in general a course; open-graded stone is used ranging 12 to 75 millimeters in
sizes. Crushed stone is preferred however natural sources are also used.
A small amount of fines subtends no problem since they are flushed to the surface
by the upward flowing water.
For dry method a large stone up to 100 millimeters in size may be used
to make sure it reaches the bottom.
uncertainties of stone to be reached the bottom itself can be another
problem regarding the dry method which may take this method in
doubt to be used.
Using of sand in vibro techniques is restricted since the upward water
pressure, makes it hard for light sands to reach bottom of the hole.
Stone columns are built using multi-layered densification
Multi-layered Densification: granular deposits are placed to the bottom
of the whole and then the layer is densified using a probe that usually
has jet of water running, until the desired densification has been
reached.
Due to lateral displacement of the soil profile due to vibration, usually
the diameter of completed stone column is larger than the one that has
been bored initially.
The completed diameters are usually between 0.8 to 1.2 meters.
Subsequent stone columns can be constructed using removal of the
probe from the completed stone column and then after moving the
crane to the proposed adjacent location, the procedure can be repeated
to build the next stone column.
Usually the spacing between adjacent stone columns is between 2 to 3
meters , however in critical condition , it barely exceeds 1.5 meters.
Decreasing the spacing has a limitation since as the spacing reduces,
more stone needs to be replaced and hence eventually it helps
triggering the collapse due to increasing lateral active pressure of soil.
Excavation rate usually is estimated by 1 to 2 meters per minute and
backfilling & compaction rate is 0.5 to 1 meter per minute.
It has been roughly estimated that the cost for each meters of stone
column is between 20 $ to 25 $.
Consideration in Stone-Column Construction
In presence of peat layer, it is always more preferable to deal with
fibrous peat than non-fibrous peat .
The ratio of peat layer thickness over column diameter should always
be kept as less than one.
Generally it is more desirable to flush out any type of peat material
from the stone-column.
In presence of sensitive clays and silts, vibration usually tends to lose
strength of this type of materials which is a result of pore-water
pressure rearrangement to upward direction.(Effective stress concept &
Mohr-Circle Relation with Effective stress concept.)
It is advised to use wet vibro-replacement technique.
In soft layers usually it is practicable to construct a granular mat over
the surface by replacing the in-situ soil by granular deposits of
stronger physical properties where especially the groundwater is
high.
Constructing such a mat has two advantages, (1) relocation of
bulging to a bellower point which can significantly increase the
bearing capacity of soil and also (2) It can work as a plane to transfer
the load more distributive over cross-section area of column.
Load test on Stone-Column
The load of 100 to 150 percent of design loads usually applies to
single stone column whereas it is less practical to load a group of
stone columns.
However depending on importance of project, sometimes it is
inevitable to go under area load methods which roughly costs about
7000$.
This type of tests usually can be performed in 5 increments of load ,
to verify the design load whether to be bear via stone column or not.
The procedure of applying the load to the structure of stone column is
very similar to static pile load test.
2 How to Design Stone-Columns?
Failure mechanism of Single Stone-Column
Single stone column can be built upon a firm stratum under a soft soil
by end bearing capability or as a floating column with tip of column
embedded within the soft soil layer. However end bearing columns are
more in practice.
Bulging can be encountered as the main factor to influence the failure
in stone column, generally it is believed that if the length of column
exceeds 2-3 times of the diameter of column, then bulging happens
surely.
As can be seen in the figure, the area

which has been shown with dash-lines is
most probable to have bulging effect
within.
In the case where a rigid short column is

assumed, the main criteria which controls
the failure is ,bearing capacity type of
failures which is denoted by stress and
strain bulbs that simply follows the
Meyerhof and Terzaqi type of
analysis.
Sometimes when a floating stone column

embedding in soft soil is considered,
especially if it is short one which
indicates that length of the column is less
than 2-3 times of diameter, before
bulging can occur, the column is already
unstable due to failure in end bearing but
even before bulging can develop.
Studies through small scale models have shown that end bearing
capacity and settlement behavior of a single stone column is
drastically under influence by the method of applying the load.
Less bulging and greater ultimate load capacity is a result of
distribution of the load over a large strip footing and also the support
of stone-column.
It can make the surrounding soil much stronger to tolerate larger
vertical and lateral forces due to larger capacity of nearby stress soil.
It has been investigated that total ultimate capacity of a square

foundation having a 4 times larger cross-sectional area in
compared with the underlying stone-column, is about 1.7 times
greater than if stone-column itself is loaded.
Failure mechanism of Group Stone-Column
An isolated stone column has a slightly more ultimate capacity compared to a
stone column group ultimate capacity per column.
As interior columns within a stone column group are confined by surrounding
column, it makes an apparent stiffness to them and hence more ultimate capacity
per column is expected within the interior stone-columns
.Spreading is a phenomena as where if a large load is applied to an area and the
soil which supports the loading is weak, the soil beneath the area of applying the
load and also soil to the side of foundation start to spread laterally.
Spreading has negative impact on settlement which means more spreading will
introduce greater settlement.
Lateral spreading displacement observed has been showed in
the following figure which is a road embankment test in New
Orleans, U.S.at this site, a retaining wall is supported using 14
stone columns each with 1.1 meters diameter, located in an
area of 11 meters by 4 meters in plan. A soil surcharge was
applied to retaining wall and an excavation was made in front
of the wall until rotational instability has been reached.
Basic Relationships for Design:
Stone columns are generally constructed within an equilateral
triangular shape although sometimes square patterns also can be
practiced.
Equilateral triangular area usually gives the densest packing of stone
columns in a given area.
Unit Cell Concept & Equivalent Diameter :
To analyze settlement and stability of a stone column, it is
conventional to associate the tributary area of soil around stone column
with a hexagonal shape which can be interpreted as a very close
approximation of circular pattern with the same total area.
For an equilateral triangle, equivalent diameter of the circle is:
For an equilateral triangle, equivalent diameter of a square grid is:
Whereas s is the spacing between stone columns.

Area replacement ratio:
The volume of soil which is replaced by stone column has a key role in
performance of improved ground.to quantify the amount of soil
replacement.
=area replacement ratio

A=total area within unit cell
As= area of stone column after compaction
Area of soil remaining ratio:
Area of replacement ratio in terms of diameter and spacing of stone column:
Where:
D=diameter of compacted stone column
s=center-to-center spacing of stone-column
= a constant dependent on the pattern of stone-column used; for a square
pattern and for equilateral triangle pattern .
After simplification of equation above by keying-in the coefficients

values:
For equilateral triangle pattern:
For square pattern:

Stress concentration:
Concentration of stress on stone column and reduction of stress on
near by soil.
The reason can be interpreted as , since displacement of soil and
stone column are assumed to be equal, the stiffer material absorbs
more stress, as here its stone column.
concentration factor n defined as:
Where:
=stress in stone column
=stress in the surrounding cohesive soil
Due to satisfaction of vertical stress, average stress which needs to be existed over a
unit cell at a given depth should be as follows:
Using the stress concentration factor to solve the equation above with all other terms
defined previously:
As where and are the ratio of stresses in clay and stone respectively to the average
stresses in the tributary area.
Ultimate load analysis of a single stone column:
Since ratio of length over diameter in stone column is usually between 4 to 6,

bulging phenomena usually develops whether at the tip of stone column lying
on a stiff strata or the case where stone column is floated in a soft soil.
The behavior of stone column is very similar to friction or end-bearing piles as
where the load is transferred due to shear transform to surrounding soil or
transmits to hard strata.
Most of analytical but not numerical methods assume a Triaxial drained state
assuming loads to be applied fast in a way that no consolidation effect needs to
be considered in determination of ultimate load capacity.
Confining stress usually in these type of analysis are taken as ultimate passive
resistance of soil.as stone columns introduces bulges to the surrounding soil,
ultimate passive resistance starts to be mobilized.
Due to classical theory of plasticity confining stress and vertical stress in a Triaxial
state of failure can be expressed as follows:
Where, is the angle of internal friction of stone column and is the coefficient of
passive earth pressure denotes by ().
Cavity expansion theory:
This theory is based on this fact that as bulging happens around the stone
Colum, passive resistance of soil starts to progress until it reaches an ultimate
value.
This theory considers the model as an infinite cylinder which can be expanded
through its symmetric axis.
Where:
: Ultimate lateral undrained stress
: Total in-situ lateral stress
: Elastic Modulus of soil
C: Undrained shear strength
: Poissons Ratio
Ultimate bearing capacity using Cavity Expansion Method

Vesic Cavity expansion theory:
- Vesic developed a model based on infinite cylinder having the soil whether plastic
or elastic, with both cohesion and friction parameters.
- Hence the ultimate loading capacity developed by lateral resistance developed
by surrounding soil can be expressed as:
Where:
C: cohesion
q: mean isotropic stress ( ) at the equivalent failure depth.
: Cavity expansion factors. (Fig 16)
- Cavity expansion factors are functions of angle of friction of surrounding soil and
rigidity index .
Where:
: Rigidity index.
E: Modulus of elasticity
C: cohesion of soil.
: Poissons
q: mean stress within the zone of failure.
Ultimate bearing capacity using Vesic Cavity Expansion Method

Ultimate loading capacity of a group of stone columns:
Consider a square rigid concrete footing resting on a cohesive soil layer
improved by stone columns.
Neglect cohesion in the stone column .
it is needed to approximate a failure surface by two straight rupture lines.
The load is applied fast in a way that, undrained state of shear stress is
developed in cohesive soil where angle of friction is negligible.
The soil immediately beneath the foundation fails approximately on a straight
rupture failure surface that forms a triangular block as can be seen in Figure 18.
Average shear strength of the soil would be developed on failure surface.
The ultimate loading capacity that the soil can bear is dependent on ultimate
lateral resistance of the block to movement and the composite shear strength
developed along inclined failure surface.
Hence following equilibrium will be used to express the states that have
been discussed:
Where:
is the composite angle of internal friction and is composite cohesion on
shear surface beneath the foundation; is area replacement ratio and is
stress concentration factor for stone.
Failure surface makes an angle with the foundation, where the parameter
for the composite soil is:
And:
To determine ultimate lateral pressure which finally will help significantly to
calculate ultimate bearing capacity, it is important to assume an infinitely long
footing for a saturated clay layer with no angular internal friction; classical earth
pressure theory will represent that:
Where:
is lateral confining pressure, is saturated or wet unit weight of soil foundation
width, inclination of failure surface provided by equation above and c as undrained
shear strength within the reinforced soil.
Ultimate load analysis of a group stone column:
Ultimate bearing capacity for group stone column

Ultimate load analysis of a group stone column:
Settlement analysis in presence of stone columns:
There are mainly two types of methods to predict settlement
behavior:
(1) simple approximate methods which have limitations due to
simplifying assumptions
(2) complicated methods based on elasticity or/and plasticity theory
such as (FEM).
All of these methods for prediction of settlement presume an infinite
wide, loaded area improved with stone columns having a constant
diameter and spacing.
Equilibrium method:
Assumptions:
(1) Unit cell concept is valid
(2) vertical load applied to unit cell has to be carried by soil and
stone.
(3) vertical displacement of soil and stone is the same.
(4) vertical load is distributed uniformly along stone column.
(5) settlement beneath the stone column usually can be neglected due
to small value after calculation.
The change in vertical stress in the clay, due to applied vertical stress is:
Where, is average externally applied stress and is ratio of stress in clay

over average stress over tributary stress.
Conventional consolidation theory represents that:
Where:
primary consolidation settlement occurring over a distance of H of stone
column treated ground, H vertical height of stone column treated ground
over which settlement are being calculated, average initial effective stress
in clay layer, change in stress in clay layer due to externally applied load,
compression index from 1D consolidation test, initial void ratio.
Ratio of improved ground settlement over untreated ground settlement for
normally consolidated clay is as follows:
1-Stress concentration factor as reflected in .

2- Initial effective stress in clay.
3- Magnitude of applied stress
And hence if other factors are constant, a greater reduction in settlement
which is ideally state, can happen in longer columns as where initial
effective stress will increase by increasing of length and for smaller
applied externally load.
For very large and relatively very small, the ratio above will approaches
to:
Graph 9 represents the equation above graphically, hence the results of
this graph is unconservative and resultantly is suitable for roughly
estimation for preliminary investigations.
Method to Estimate Settlement Reduction Using
Stone Columns in Cohesive Soils
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3 CASE STUDIES
Some technical approaches on How to Manage GW Resources?

Case study of an Interchange Embankment Fill:
Location : Hampton, Virginia, U.S.A
Function: Stone columns were used to support part of interchange ramp
embankment
Factors of selection: Stone columns were selected to reinforce the
ground because:
1- Strict environmental constraints.
2- Achieving acceptable post-construction settlements without
delaying the project.
Maximum height of project: fill heights in the area reinforced with
stone column were up to 10.7 meters.
Soil profile :
Shear strength :
The median values of shear strength in the upper 3-5 m as determined by
field vane tests, were 24-29 KN/m2, while the median value for the softer
zones was about 18 kN/m2. The lowest two values observed at the site
were 8.6-9.6 kN/m2.
Stone-Column Specification:
Length: 6 meters
Diameter: 1.1 meters
Pattern: Equilateral Triangular
Spacing: 1.8 2.4 meters
18-33 % soil has been replaced.
Maximum stone size: 64 millimeters crushed stone
Stone-column load test: single column and group columns, 401 tons of
load for 54 hours and the settlement at the center of group was 7.9
millimeters. After 130 days the settlement at the same location was 300
millimeters. Stress concentration factor was between 2.4 to 2.9.
Case study of an Embankment Fill:
Location : Munich, Germany
Function: Stone columns were used to support a high embankment fill
for a high speed railway embankment
Factors of selection: Rigid Stone columns were selected to reinforce the
ground because:
1-The sheet pile wall was not required.
2- Embankment fill quantities and working area were reduced since the
peat was not removed.
3- Construction time was decreased.
4- Rigid stone column had economic logics than replacement.
Maximum height of project: fill heights in the area reinforced with
stone column were up to 10.7 meters.
Soil profile:
Construction Procedure:
removal and replacement of the peat was planned to increase stability
and reduce long-term settlement of the embankment. This alternative
involved constructing a temporary sheet pile wall along the edge of the
existing adjacent embankment for support during peat removal. The sheet
pile wall was to be tied back into the existing embankment. The
procedure of rigid stone column is very similar to cast-in concrete pile. 30
to 60 centimeters of granular blanket placed over rigid column.
Number of stone-columns: 855 Rigid Type
Method of installation: bottom-feed
Maximum depth of penetration: 6.5 meters terminated in stiff clay later
while passing through loose gravel
Design load per column: 45 tons
Ultimate loading capacity: 130 tons
Diameter: 510 560 millimeters
Pattern: Equilateral Triangle
Spacing: 1.6 to 2.2 meters
Total Tributary area: 2.8 to 3.0 meters squared
Area Replacement ratio: 0.06 to 0.08 (much less than usual conventional
stone column)
Reported settlement of embankment: 6 millimeters.
Material: ready mixed concrete, 34 MPa maximum unconfined
compression strength; maximum grain size is equal to 32 millimeters.
Bottom feed method was used.
Design based on ultimate bearing capacity criteria:
Briefing:
Prediction of load due to wide fill supported by a stone column
improved ground to avoid shear failure of the stone column is
required.
Another saying, the question is to determine height of the fill to be
supported by stone column improved ground.
Both a general shear failure and a local bulging failure need to be
considered in a deep, very soft clay layer.
Stone column is assumed to have angle of internal friction of 42
degrees and an equilateral triangular pattern of column with spacing
of 2.1 meters have has been selected.
Solution :
1-Calculate area replacement ratio ()

Solution :
2-Single stone column analysis:

Bulging happens at top one third length of diameter portion.
Since plastic index of marine clay where bulging happens within, is
less than 30 so the soil is relatively stiff and hence Nc is selected by
22.
Where:
q: ultimate stress which stone column carries.
c: undrained shear strength of surrounding soil
Solution :
2-Single stone column analysis:

Nc:
bearing capacity factor for stone column, it is dependent on
compressibility of soil, so an organic soil for example, may expected to
have smaller value of it. for soils having a reasonably high initial stiffness
an Nc of 22 is recommended. For soils having a plasticity index greater
than 30, Nc of 18 is recommended. High stiffness soils include inorganic
to stiff clay and silts.
Solution :
3-Deep bulging:
Now check for possibility of bulging failure in the very soft clay located
at the depth of 6 meters.an ultimate lateral stress that a single column can
develop is approximately equal to 9c=9(0.2 ksf)=1.8 ksf.
Solution :
4-cohesive soil:
Maximum ultimate stress that surrounding clay can take is 5c=5(0.45
ksf)= 2.25 ksf. However the total load applied at the unit cell must not
overload the clay, hence, assuming concentration factor n=3:
Then , since 3>2.25 so:

The maximum ultimate capacity of clay is 2.25 which is more critical.
Solution :
5-allowable fill loading:
The ultimate loadings which can be applied over the unit cell are within
the fill area is:
Using a safety factor of 2 hence represents ultimate load to be applied for

stone column as: 161/2=80.5 k= P (allowable)
Solution :
5-allowable fill loading: (cont.)
The height of embankment which applies the safe loading to the unit cell
can be calculated as follows:
The height of embankment which applies the safe loading to the unit cell
can be calculated as follows:
Solution :
6-commentary:
Settlement of the fill is significant and should be calculated.
in this example the very soft clay at depth of 6 meters, controls the
load which needs to be applied to the stone column.
Use of an ultimate lateral stress of 9c acting on the stone column
hence give a conservative but realistic estimation of ultimate
resistance regarding bulging that can be developed.
Due to wide guess of fill, stress on stone column does not decrease
with depth due to lateral spreading of stress.
Design based on group ultimate bearing capacity criteria:
Briefing:
Stone column were used to reduce settlement of a foundation 4.1 by
3.2 meters squared.
Determine the ultimate and safe bearing capacity of 10 stone column
groups.
The material properties and geometries are illustrated in figure below.
Modular ratio () assumed to be 6.in general it is not recommended to
use spacing less than 5 ft.
Solution :
1-calculate area replacement ratio ()
Solution :
2-determine stress concentration in stone column:
Stress concentration factor is derived from fig.27 as 2.0.(n=2.0)

Solution :
3-calculate the composite shear strength within the stone column group:
Solution :
4-Calculate in surrounding clay of stone column using Vesic cavity
expansion theory:
Since clay is stiff, no organic is existed and PI=30 which represents
young modulus of 11c (E=11c) for calculating the rigidity index.(
The average diameter of foundation is
The depth of failure wedge is then
stiff clay is normally consolidated and and
.
Solution :
4- ( cont.)
Now calculate the rigidity index:
Solution :
5-calculate the ultimate vertical load and stress that can be applied
over the rigid foundation:
And finally the ultimate load that can be applied is: ( FOS=2)
Solution :
6-commentary:
Settlement analysis may control the design process.so it is inevitable to
check settlement criteria and an example regarding the basic procedure is
demonstrated in the next illustration. The average loading applied to
foundation is, the probable distribution of load between stone column and
for concentration factor ( n) of 2 ,would be :
Solution :
6-commentary: ( cont.)
Since ultimate stress that stiff clay can bear is 6.2c=6.2 ksf, and
comparing this value with the current site condition, clay stress is not
excessive.
As discussed in previous sections, the ratio of settlement of a treated
ground to an unimproved ground is , hence for the condition analyzed 25
percent reduction in settlement due to initial condition is expected. For
this site condition use of a larger foundation is recommended due to
uncritical conditions.
Design based on settlement criteria:
Briefing:
Calculation of settlement in in soft clay site reinforced with stone
columns and loaded by a wide fill. Primary settlement is calculated
using Equilibrium method. Subsurface conditions are as follows:
1- 20 ft.(6.1 m) of gray , soft silty clay
2- Firm to dense sand
3- Groundwater table is at the surface
4- Equilateral triangular pattern of stone column is selected.
5-Spacing between stone columns is 6.5 ft.( 2 m)
6- The diameter of stone column is estimated to be 3.5 ft. ( 1.07 m)
7-Sand blanket of 2.5 ft. (0.7 m) is to be placed over soft silty clay for a
working platform and drainage blanket.
Solution:
Equilibrium Method:
The average stress exerted by 2.5 ft. sand blanket layer and 12.5 ft.
structural fill on top of stone column is approximately:
Area replacement ratio for an equilateral triangular stone column will be

calculated as follows:
Assume stress concentration of 5 for settlement analysis and then ratio of

stress in cohesive soil to average stress will be 0.487.
The initial effective stress at the middle of silty clay layer is:
The primary consolidation settlement in the clay layer from 1-D

consolidation theory based on spring-dashpot explanation then can be
calculated as:
If the site was not under treatment, primary settlement would have been
45.2 in.

Stone Column

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Stone Column

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Stone Column

Introduction, Installation, Construction,

How to Design Stone column?

Theoretical background & Design Examples

Where Stone column has been applied?

Studies of three real stone columns function

As can be seen in the figure, the area

In the case where a rigid short column is

Sometimes when a floating stone column

It has been investigated that total ultimate capacity of a square

For an equilateral triangle, equivalent diameter of a square grid is:

Whereas s is the spacing between stone columns.

=area replacement ratio

After simplification of equation above by keying-in the coefficients

For square pattern:

Since ratio of length over diameter in stone column is usually between 4 to 6,

Ultimate bearing capacity using Cavity Expansion Method

Ultimate bearing capacity using Vesic Cavity Expansion Method

Ultimate bearing capacity for group stone column

Where, is average externally applied stress and is ratio of stress in clay

1-Stress concentration factor as reflected in .

Some technical approaches on How to Manage GW Resources?

1-Calculate area replacement ratio ()

2-Single stone column analysis:

2-Single stone column analysis:

Then , since 3>2.25 so:

Using a safety factor of 2 hence represents ultimate load to be applied for

Stress concentration factor is derived from fig.27 as 2.0.(n=2.0)

Area replacement ratio for an equilateral triangular stone column will be

Assume stress concentration of 5 for settlement analysis and then ratio of

The primary consolidation settlement in the clay layer from 1-D

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