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FLUID MECHANCS
Textbook: FLUID MECHANICS
By Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala
McGraw Hill Education, Third Edition
Fluid Mechanics:
Fluid mechanics plays a major part in the design and analysis of:
aircraft, boats, submarines, rockets, jet engines, wind turbines,
biomedical devices, the cooling of electronic components, and the
transportation of water, crude oil, and natural gas.
It is also considered in the design of buildings, bridges, and even
billboards to make sure that the structures can withstand wind
loading.
Numerous natural phenomena such as the rain cycle, weather
patterns, the rise of ground water to the top of trees, winds, ocean
waves, and currents in large water bodies are also governed by the
principles of fluid mechanics.
What is a Fluid?
A substance in the liquid or gas phase is referred to as a fluid.
Distinction between a solid and a fluid is made on the basis of the substances ability to
resist an applied shear (or tangential) stress that tends to change its shape.
Examples:
Total mass, total volume V, total momentum etc.
Criteria to differentiate intensive
and extensive properties
A fluid in a container is characterized by the fluid
properties a, b, c, d and e as shown in fig below.
Which of these properties are intensive
properties?
(A)a & e
(B) b, c & d
(C) a, b, c, d & e
(D) a & b
Continuum
It means to disregard the atomic nature of a substance and
view it as a continuous, homogeneous matter with no
holes.
The curved free surface of a liquid in a capillary tube is called the meniscus.
Contact Angle
If, If,
<90o >90o
then fluid then fluid
wets the does not
surface. wet the
surface.
Proof:
Equating the vertical component of the surface
tension force to the weight gives:
This relation is also valid for non-wetting
liquids (such as mercury in glass) and gives the
capillary drop. In this case cos>90 and thus
cos<0, which makes h negative.
The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow direction is called the
drag force.
Mayonnaise
Drilling Mud
Tooth Paste
The below diagram is a graph of change in shear
stress with respect to velocity gradient in a fluid.
What is the type of the fluid?
(a) Newtonian fluid
(b) Non-Newtonian fluid
(c) Ideal fluid
(d) Dilatant fluid
Which of the graphs in below diagram represent
Newtonian fluids?
(a) Only C
(b) Only B and C
(c) Only A and D
(d) Only B, C and E
The viscosity of a fluid is to be measured by a viscometer
constructed of two 40-cm-long concentric cylinders. The outer
diameter of the inner cylinder is 12 cm, and the gap between
the two cylinders is 0.15 cm. The inner cylinder is rotated at
300 rpm, and the torque is measured to be 1.8 N-m.
Determine the viscosity of the fluid.
Pressure
Perfect Vacuum
(absolute pressure =0)
Relation between Absolute Pressure
and Gauge Pressure:-
Absolute pressure at a
point
= Atmospheric pressure
Perfect Vacuum + Gauge pressure
(absolute pressure =0)
A vacuum gage connected to a chamber reads 5.8
psi at a location where the atmospheric pressure
is 14.5 psi. Determine the absolute pressure in
the chamber.
What is the correct formula for absolute pressure?
(a) Pabs = Patm Pgauge
Pgauge
(b) Pabs = Pvacuum Patm
(c) Pabs = Pvacuum + Patm Pabs
Patm
(d) Pabs = Patm+ Pgauge
Perfect Vacuum
(absolute pressure =0)
Pressure at a point
To show that the pressure at a point in a fluid has the same magnitude
in all directions:
To prove: P1 = P2 = P3
A A
B B
C C
Which of the points in below diagram represent
points of same pressure ?
Variation of pressure in a fluid at
rest
Horizontal direction: Pressure in a fluid at rest does not
change in the horizontal direction. This can be shown
easily by considering a thin horizontal layer of fluid and
doing a force balance in any horizontal direction.
Applying equations of
equilibrium in x and z directions,
we can write:
Find the difference in pressure of air(= 1.2754 kg/m3) in a
room(5m high)between the ceiling and floor?
Solution: Let, Pressure near ceiling =P1
Pressure near floor =P2
We know that
P2 P1 = gh = 1.2754 x 9.81 x 5 = 62.4897 Pa
Percentage difference = (P2 P1)/ P1
= 62.4897x100/105= 0.0625%
Thus we conclude that, for small to moderate distances, the
variation of pressure with height is negligible for gases because of
their low density.
Measurement of Pressure
The area ratio A2/A1 is called the ideal mechanical advantage of the
hydraulic lift.
Home Work:
Derive a relation for the capillary rise of a liquid
between two large parallel plates a distance t apart
inserted into the liquid vertically. Take the contact
angle to be .
INTRODUCTION TO FLUID STATICS
There are no shear forces as there is no relative motion between the layers
of the fluid.
The design of many engineering systems such as water dams and liquid
storage tanks requires the determination of the forces acting on the surfaces
using fluid statics.
Hydrostatic force on an inclined
plane:
Here,
C.P. = Center of Pressure
FP ( gh)dA
A
yA Pressure Force on
an inclined plane
FP ( gy sin ) A ( gh ) A
Where, y Distance of Center of Area(C.A.) from X - axis
To locate the centre of pressure of
an inclined submerged surface:
Let, a surface be submerged in a
liquid inclined at an angle, with the
free surface of the liquid.
Hence,
Force on the elemental area,
dF = (gh)dA
g sin y 2 dA
A
( g sin ) I xx
---------(1)
Buoyancy:-
A fluid exerts an upward force on a body immersed in it. This force that tends
to lift the body is called the buoyant force and is denoted by FB.
An object feels lighter and weighs less in a liquid than it does in air.
Hence,
Buoyant force = f gV = weight of the
liquid displaced
Which body experiences greater buoyant force? Both are
made up of same material.
(A) Blue
(B) Green
(C) Both experience equal buoyant force
(D) None of the bodies experience buoyant force
How much is the buoyant force acting on each body? Both
are made up of steel(=7600 kg/m3).
(A) A,B
(B) A,C
(C) A,D
(D) B,D
Which body experiences greater buoyant force? All are
made up of same material but are at different depth.
(A) A
(B) B
(C) C
(D) all experience equal buoyant force
Which body experiences greater buoyant force? All are
having same diameter.
(A) A
(B) B
(C) C
(D) all experience equal buoyant force
Center of Buoyancy(C.B.) : It is the centroid of the
displaced volume of liquid. Center of
Buoyancy
Liquid Displaced has got same shape in all three cases. Hence
same center of buoyancy.
For which of the bodies shown in fig below, center of
gravity is below center of buoyancy?
(A) A and B
(B) B only
(C) B and C
(D) all
For which of the bodies shown in fig below, center of
gravity and center of buoyancy are same?
(A) A
(B) B
(C) C
(D) all
Which body has CB nearest to CG?
A
B
C
(A) A
(B) B
(C) C
(D) all
Buoyant force is independent of:
(i) the distance of the body from the free
surface and
(ii)the density of the solid body.
Archimedes Principle: After the Greek mathematician
Archimedes (287212 BC).
It is expressed as:
The buoyant force acting on a body immersed in
a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the body, and it acts upward
through the centroid of the displaced volume.
According to Archimede's principle, if a body is
immersed partially or fully in a fluid then the
buoyancy force is _______ the weight of fluid
displaced by the body.
(a) equal to
(b) less than
(C)more than
(d) unpredictable
Floating bodies
Submarine(submerged body)
Ship(Floating Body)
Stability of Immersed Bodies: Eg. Submarine
(i) Stability in the vertical direction: If an immersed neutrally
buoyant body is raised or lowered to a different depth, the body
will remain in equilibrium at that location. Therefore, an
immersed neutrally buoyant body is neutrally stable since it does
not return to its original position after a disturbance.
(ii) Rotational stability of an immersed body:
Depends on the relative locations of the C.G.
of the body and the C.B.
Thus, an
immersed
body is
stable like
Bottom that
Weight Top
heavy shown in
uniformly heavy
distributed Fig.(a)
if the
body is
bottom-
heavy and
hence
point C.G
is directly
below
point C.B.
Stability of Floating Bodies: Eg. Ship
(i) Stability in the vertical direction: If a floating body is raised or
lowered somewhat by a vertical force, the body will return to its
original position as soon as the external effect is removed.
Therefore, a floating body possesses vertical stability.
(ii) Rotational stability of a floating body:
GM = Metacentric Height
M = Metacenter.
Metacenter(M)It is the intersection point of
the lines of action of the buoyant force through
the body before and after rotation.
The metacenter may be
considered to be a fixed point for most hull
shapes for small rolling angles up to about 20.
Metacentric Height(GM) - A measure of
stability for floating bodies is the metacentric
height(GM),which is the distance between the
center of gravity G and the metacenter M.
Thus, a floating body with G directly above B is:
Buoyant
force = gV
After displacement:
(2)
Subtracting eq(1) from eq(2) we have:
Called
metacentric radius
Called
metacentric height
A uniform, closed cylindrical buoy, 1.5 m high, 1.0 m diameter
and of mass 80 kg is to float with its axis vertical in seawater of
density 1026 kg m3. A body of mass 10 kg is attached to the
centre of the top surface of the buoy. Show that, if the buoy
floats freely, initial instability will occur.
Fluid Kinematics
Fluid kinematics
In fluid dynamics, fluid kinematics is the study of how fluids flow and
how to describe fluid motion.
(iii) the fluid parcels continually deform as they move in the flow.
Eulerian description:
In the Eulerian description of fluid flow, a finite
volume called a flow domain or control volume
is defined, through which fluid flows in and
out.
Sol.:
These are:
(a)translation,
(b)rotation,
(d)shear strain.
Fundamental types of fluid element
motion or deformation:
translation,
rotation,
shear strain.
Because fluid elements may be in constant motion,
it is preferable in fluid dynamics to describe the
motion and deformation of fluid elements in terms
of rates.
In particular, we discuss
velocity(rate of translation),
angular velocity(rate of rotation),
Linear strain rate(rate of linear strain), and
Shear strain rate(rate of shear strain).
Rate of translation:
Here, the fluid element has moved in the positive horizontal (x) direction; thus u
is positive, while v(and w) are zero.
Rate of rotation(angular velocity)
=(a +b)/2,
and
=d(a +b)/(2dt)
Thus, rate of rotation of fluid element about
point P can be given by:
In 3-dimensions:
Linear strain rate
It is defined as the rate of increase in length
per unit length.
Volumetric strain rate or
bulk strain rate
The rate of increase of volume of a fluid element per unit volume is called
its volumetric strain rate or bulk strain rate.
In 3-dimensions:
We can mathematically combine linear strain
rate and shear strain rate into one symmetric
second-order tensor called the strain rate
tensor, as shown below:
For the given velocity field,
find:
Rate of translation,
Rate of rotation,
Special cases:
(i) V 0, Flow is irrotational.
(ii)
V 0, Flow is rotational.
Rotational and Irrotational Regions
of Flow
Rotation of fluid elements is associated with wakes, boundary layers, flow
through turbomachinery (fans, turbines, compressors, etc.), and flow with
heat transfer.
That is,
Conservation of Mass: Continuity
Equation(cartesian coordinates)
Consider an infinitesimal box-shaped control volume aligned with
the axes in Cartesian coordinates as shown in fig.
At the center of
the box we
define the
density as and
the velocity
components as
u, v, and w as
shown.
The center of the right-most face of the box is located a
distance dx/2 from the middle of the box in the x-direction;
the value of u at that point is given by Taylor series
expansion as below:
( u ) dx
u center of right face u (neglecting higher
x 2 order terms)
Similarly,
( u ) dx
u center of left face u
x 2
( v) dy
v center of top face v
y 2
( v) dy
v center of bottomface v
y 2
( w) dz
wcenter of front face w
z 2
( w) dz
wcenter of back face w
z 2
Net mass flow rate into CV:
( u ) dx ( v) dy ( w) dz
m
u
x
2
dydz
v
y
dxdz
w
z
dxdy
2
in 2
Or,
( u ) dx ( v) dy ( w) dz
u dydz
v
dxdz w dxdy
x 2 y 2 z 2
( u ) dx ( v) dy ( w) dz
u dydz v dxdz w dxdy
x 2 y 2 z 2
(dx)( dy )( dz )
t
( u ) ( v) ( w)
Or, dx dydz dy dxdz dz dxdy
x y z
(dx)( dy )( dz )
t
Known as
compressible
form of
( u ) ( v) ( w) continuity
Or, 0 equation in
t x y z cartesian
coordinates
Special cases:
Case 1: Steady Compressible Flow
( u ) ( v) ( w)
0
t x y z
( u ) ( v) ( w)
0
x y z
Case 2: Incompressible Flow
CONSTANT
u v w
0
t x y z
Known as incompressible form of
u v w continuity equation in cartesian
0 coordinates.
x y z
It is this equation which is used in
the entire course of Fluid
Mechanics.
Which of the following fig. represent an impossible flow?
(B)
(A)
(C)
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
u v
or , 0
x y
u v
LHS 0
x y x y y x
RHS
Thus we conclude that velocity components generated by stream function() always
satisfy continuity equation.
The Stream Function in Cylindrical
Coordinates
We simplify the incompressible continuity equation, for two-dimensional planar flow
in the r plane:
Proof:
( x, y ) cons tan t
or , d ( x, y ) 0
( x, y ) ( x, y )
or , dx dy 0
x y
or ,vdx udy 0
represents equation of
dx dy
or , streamline
u v
Hence proved.
Circulation
It is given by:
i.e.,
( x, y, z ) ( x, y, z ) ( x, y, z )
u ,v &w
x y z
Prove that streamlines and equipotential lines are
orthogonal to each other.
u u u u p
u v w g x (1)
t x y z x
v v v v p
u v w g y (2)
t x y z y
w w w w p
u v w g z (3)
t x y z z
Forces considered in above equation are surface force(due to pressure ) and
body force(due to weight).
Bernoulli's equation
The Bernoulli equation is an approximate relation between
pressure, velocity, and elevation.
Venturimeter:
measures discharge
through a pipe
Throat
very accurate Converging Diverging
part part
expensive
Connections to manometer
Venturimeter
Applying Bernoullis equation between sections (1) and (2) we have
P1 V12 P2 V22
Z1 Z2
g 2 g g 2 g
Z1 Z 2
P1 V12 P2 V22
P1 P2
g 2 g g 2 g
y
P1 P2 V22 V12 x
- - - - - (1) PA PB
g g 2 g 2 g
A B
According to Pascals Law
PA PB - - - - - - - (2)
But , PA P1 gx - - - - - - - (3)
and , PB P2 gy m gh - - - - - - - (4)
From eq(2), (3) and (4) we have:
P1 gx P2 gy m gh - - - - - - - (5)
P1 g ( y h) P2 gy m gh
or , P1 P2 m gh - gh
or , P1 P2 ( m - ) gh - - - - - - - (6)
From eq(1) and (6) we have:
( m ) gh V22 V12
g 2g 2g
( m ) gh Q 2 1 1
( 2 - 2) Theoretical
g 2 g A 2 A1 Discharge
1/ 2
1 2( m ) gh A1A 2
Q Q 2 m 1 gh
1 1
2 - 2
A 1
2
- A2
2
A 2 A1
Actual Discharge(Qactual):
Qactual Cd Q
Where, Cd = Coefficient of discharge. Its typical value for a Venturimeter is 0.98
Inclined Venturimeter
A1A 2 m
Q 2 1 gh
A 1
2
- A2
2
Orificemeter: Vena
contracta
Orificemeter:
Used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid flowing
through a pipe.
1
By continuity equation, we have
Q = A1 V1 = A2 V2 = (A0Cc)V2 -------(4)
From eq.(3) and (4), we have
2 g m - 1h
V2
2
2
- - - - - -(5)
AC
1 0 c
A1
2 g m - 1h
Q A0Cc - - - - - - - (6)
2
AC
1 0 c
A1
If Cd is the co-efficient of discharge for orifice
meter, which is defined as:
2
A0
1
C d Cc A1
- - - - - - - (7)
2
AC
1 0 c
A1
Actual
Discharge
A0 A1
Q Cd 2 g m - 1h
A1 A0
2 2
Pitot Tubes
or,V 2 g ( H h)
or , Vactual CV V
or,Vactual CV 2 g ( H h)
Where, Cv=Coefficient of Pitot-tube
A piezometer and a Pitot tube are tapped into a horizontal water
pipe, as shown in Fig., to measure static and stagnation (static+
dynamic) pressures. For the indicated water column heights,
determine the velocity at the center of the pipe.
Ans:1.53 m/s
Rotameter:
Glass Tube Rotameter is basically a Variable
Area Flow Meter.