2.

The physical properties of

electromagnetic radiation can be
used as diagnostic tools

In 1895 Wilhelm Roentgen discovered X-rays.

Above is an x-ray of his own hand.
 describe how X-rays are currently
produced

Copper Anode Cathode

with Tungsten (Heated
face. Filament)
 describe how X-rays are
currently produced

An x-ray tube is just a modified cathode ray tube.

Electrons are emitted by thermionic emission at the
cathode and are accelerated by a large potential
difference towards the anode.
X-rays are produced in two ways when the electrons
strike the anode.
 describe how X-rays are
currently produced
1. As the electrons decelerate at
the anode their kinetic energy is
transformed into x rays (general
x-ray spectrum)

Energy conversion
Kinetic  x-rays
 describe how X-rays are
currently produced
2. High energy electrons collide with inner shell electrons in
the Tungsten target ejecting them from their shell.
As an outer shell electron falls in to a lower energy level it
releases an x-ray photon. (Characteristic radiation)
tr ansi ti on x-ray
Ele photon
c t ro
n
K L M N

Ejected electron
 compare the differences
  between ‘soft’ and ‘hard’ X-rays
Hard X-Rays
- Higher Frequency, Smaller
Wavelength λ ~0.01nm
- Closer to the gamma ray
spectrum
- Higher penetration (photons
have more energy)
- Produces higher “quality” x-
rays
- Higher voltages are required
to produce
Soft X-Rays
- Lower Frequency, Larger
Wavelength λ ~1nm
- Closer to the UV ray spectrum
- Lower penetration (photons
have less energy)
- Produces lower “quality” x-
ray
- Lower Voltages are required
to produce
Explain how a computed axial
tomography (CAT) scan is
produced A CT or CAT scan is a
tomographic image(slice) of the
body.
A narrow sector-shaped x-ray
beam is passed through the body
falling on a linear array of
detectors on the opposite side of
the body
 The x-ray source and detectors
are rotated around the body,
passing the x-rays through the
body at different angles
explain how a computed axial
tomography (CAT) scan is
produced
 The detectors measure the
varying transmission intensity
of the x-rays at different
angles, sending the data to a
computer.
The computer uses the data
to construct a tomographic
image showing a sectional
view through the body in the
plane of the original rotating
sector beam.
gather information to observe at least one
image of a fracture on an X-ray film and
X-ray images of other body parts

Oops ! A broken wrist

 describe circumstances where a CAT scan
would be a superior diagnostic tool
compared to either X-rays or ultrasound

 Normal x-rays(right top)

produce an image of the
entire thickness of the body.
 Structures therefore
overlap and and can be
difficult to identify.
 A tumor in the lungs would
be difficult to identify with
x-rays but with a CT scan
(right) you could view
detailed images of inside
the lungs.
 describe circumstances where a CAT scan
would be a superior diagnostic tool
compared to either X-rays or ultrasound
Ultrasound can obtain an image of soft tissue but only when the
tissue is not obscured by bone.
Ultrasound cannot be used to image the brain because of the large
reflections from the scull.
Thus CT scans are better for examining brain tumors.
CT scans also have the advantage of higher resolution and thus
can diagnose much smaller structures such as early tumors.
Question Set 1
1. Identify the term for producing a
cross-sectional slice image of the
body.
2. Explain why a high voltage is needed
to produce x-rays in a CRT.
3. Discuss the use of ultrasound instead
of CAT scans to diagnose problems in
unborn children.
Question Set 2
1. Frank is rushed to the hospital after a physical
game of football and has a suspected hairline
fracture of a rib. The doctor orders an x-ray even
though it may not show the tiny fracture. Account
for the doctors decision.
2. Joey the legend league player gets yet another
knee injury. The doctor opts for a CAT scan instead
of either an x-ray or ultrasound scan. Account for
the doctors decision.
explain how an endoscope works in
relation to total internal reflection
Endoscopy is the medical
examination of the
interior of the body by
inserting an optical tube
(an endoscope) through
an opening in the body.
 explain how an endoscope works in
relation to total internal reflection

Endoscopes use the process of total

internal reflection to transfer light along
A the individual fibers which make up the
endoscope.
As light passes from a more optically
dense medium(glass) into a less optically
dense medium it refracts. (figure A)
B If the angle of incidence (i) exceeds the
critical angle then the light will reflect
inside the material instead of refracting
outside it(total internal reflection).
 explain how an endoscope
works in relation to total
internal reflection
 A typical optical fiber is shown
on the right. The parts are :
 Core the inner light-carrying
member.
 Cladding the middle layer,
which serves to confine the light
to the core. It must have a lower
refractive index than the core.
 Buffer the outer layer
serving to protect the core and
cladding from damage.
discuss differences between the
role of coherent and incoherent
bundles of fibers in an
endoscope
The arrangement of fibres in a
coherent bundle is represented
schematically in the diagram
(left).
Coherent fibres are used to
transport images from inside the
body.
The individual fibres in the pipe
must be in the same position
relative to each other at the start
and the finish.
discuss differences between the
role of coherent and incoherent
bundles of fibers in an
endoscope
 In a non-coherent fibre
bundle, one or more of
the fibres swap positions
relative to each other at
opposite ends of the
fibre.
 Incoherent fibres are
used to transport light
along the endoscope but
cannot be used to
transport an image.
     explain how an endoscope is used in:
– observing internal organs
– obtaining tissue samples of
internal organs for further testing
 Incoherent fibres to transmit light to the point of
observation.
 Coherent fibres to carry the image back to the
observer from the tissue being observed
 A system of lenses to focus an image of the tissues
under examination onto the optical fibre bundle.
Suction tube to remove blood and other loose tissue
material
Miniature remote controlled surgical instruments
gather information to observe at
least one image of a fracture on
an X-ray film and X-ray images
of other body parts
X-rays of internal
organs can be
obtained by having
patients ingest barium
sulfate which is
opaque to x-rays.
gather secondary information to observe a CAT scan
image and compare the information provided by CAT
scans to that provided by an
X-ray image for the same body part (chest)

CAT Scan X-ray

2 dimensional slice Entire thickness converted
into a 2D image
No overlap of body parts Overlap makes it difficult
to see internal structures
Very high resolution Reasonable resolution
(sometimes blurry)
Can image soft tissue Can only image hard
tissue
 gather secondary information to
observe internal organs from
images produced by an
endoscope

Stomach ulcer
Anterior Cruciate ligament
gather secondary information to
observe internal organs from
images produced by an
endoscope

Tools can be inserted

with the fibre optic
cable so a doctor can
manipulate the tools
while watching a
television screen.
Question Set 3
1. Define the term critical angle.
2. Contrast coherent and incoherent bundles
of fibres.
3. Explain why optical fibres have a coating of
lower refractive index material.
4. Discuss the use of endoscopes in internal
surgery.
5. Outline how it would be possible to increase
the resolution of the image transported by a
bundle of coherent optical fibres