Airplane Performance II

AE2-202 I

Dr. Ir. Mark Voskuijl

Lecture 1
 Literature
Textbook
G.J.J. Ruigrok, Elements of airplane performance

Reader
AE2-201 Flight path simulations
AE4-213 Rotorcraft performance, stability and control
Question
What is the most efficient way (minimum time)
to go from take-off at sea-level to Mach 1.5 at
15,000 m?

A. Climb at airspeed for max . At 15,000 m accelerate to

Mach 2
B. Climb at airspeed for max RC. At 15,000 m accelerate to
Mach 2
C. Climb at airspeed for max RC to 11,000 m. Descent and
accelerate to Mach 1.2 at 9,000 m, climb and accelerate
to Mach 2 at 11,000 m. Decelerated climb to 15,000 m,
Mach 1.5
D. Accelerate at sea-level to Mach 1.5, climb to 15,000 m at
airspeed for max RC
 Question
What is the most efficient way (minimum time)
to go from take-off at sea-level to Mach 1.5 at
15,000 m?

A. Climb at airspeed for max . At 15,000 m accelerate to

Mach 2
B. Climb at airspeed for max RC. At 15,000 m accelerate to
Mach 2

C. Climb at airspeed for max RC to 11,000 m.

Descent and accelerate to Mach 1.2 at 9,000 m,
climb and accelerate to Mach 2 at 11,000 m.
Decelerated climb to 15,000 m, Mach 1.5
D. Accelerate at sea-level to Mach 1.5, climb to 15,000 m at
airspeed for max RC
Difference with last year
1st year aircraft performance deals with point
performance
2nd year aircraft performance deals with path
performance

V
Difference with last year - example
Year 1
What is the maximum rate of climb at sea level for a
given aircraft

Year 2
What is the minimum time to climb from sea level to
10,000 ft?
 Course outline
Lecture Subject
1 Unsteady climb / descent part 1
2 Unsteady climb / descent part 2
3 Take-off
4 Effect of wind on take-off
5 Landing
6 Equations of motion with wind gradient
7 Phugoid
8 Cruise / transport performance
9 3D Turn part 1
10 3D Turn part 2
11 Helicopter performance part 1
12 Helicopter performance part 2
13 Example calculations / practice exam
 Course outline
Lecture Subject
1 Unsteady climb / descent part 1
2 Unsteady climb / descent part 2
3 Take-off
4 Effect of wind on take-off
5 Landing
6 Equations of motion with wind gradient
7 Phugoid
8 Cruise / transport performance
9 3D Turn part 1
10 3D Turn part 2
11 Helicopter performance part 1
12 Helicopter performance part 2
13 Example calculations / practice exam
Lecture 1 - Outline
Unsteady Climb

1. Introduction (How does a pilot

perform a climb?)
2. Equations of motion
3. Numerical simulation
4. Analytical solutions
5. Example exam question
Introduction
 Unsteady climb

A pilot performs a climb at constant IAS. Then why

do we have a look at unsteady accelerating flight?
Airspeed indicator
 Accelerating climb (why?)
IAS Indicated airspeed Vi

No instrument errors

CAS Calibrated airspeed Vc

0m ISA TAS True airspeed V

M<<1

EAS
Equivalent airspeed Ve V
0
Accelerating flight (why?)

Climb with IAS constant

TAS if H
Example
Maximum rate of climb (RCmax)

Minimum power required (Pr,min)

(CL3 / CD2)max

W 2 1
C L 3C D Ae L W V
0 S CL

True airspeed increases with altitude but Indicated

Airspeed remains constant
Introduction - summarized
Pilot performs climb at constant Indicated Airspeed
(e.g. the airspeed at which RCmax can be achieved)

The true airspeed is actually increasing

The flight is therefore unsteady (dV/dt 0)

Lecture 1
Unsteady Climb

1. Introduction
2. Equations of motion
3. Numerical simulation
4. Analytical solutions
5. Example exam question
 Climb
Quasi rectilinear approximation of the climb

Distance
10 15 km

Altitude

200 400 km

Conclusion: Very faint curvature d/dt 0

Equations of motion

Free Body Diagram Kinetic Diagram

d
L mV
dt
Xb Xb
V
T V

D
Xe dV Xe
m
dt

W
Zb Zb
Ze Ze
Equations of motion
F ma
dV
V :T cos T D W sin m
dt
d
V : L W cos T sin T mV
dt
Simplification:
The aircraft is performing a quasi-rectilinear flight. (d/dt = 0)

Assumptions:
The thrust acts in the same direction as the airspeed and the flight
path angle is small but non-zero (T = 0; cos = 1; sin 0)
Equations of motion
Equation of motion // V:

W dV
T D W sin
g dt

Equation of motion

L W cos
Kinematic equations
Vertical:

dh dH
RC
dt dt V sin

Horizontal

ds
V cos
dt
 Lecture 1
Unsteady quasi-rectilinear flight

1. How does a pilot perform a climb

2. Equations of motion
3. Numerical simulation
4. Analytical solutions
5. Example Exam Question
 Number of variables
7 Variables
t V h s

1 independent: t
6 dependent: V h s

1 independent t
2 control variables
4 state variables V h s
 Control law
Control actions of the pilot can be modeled as:

climb
K Vc Vc ,req

K M M MO
 Initial values of V and H at t0

Calculate (ISA)
Calculate Vc
Control program: = K ( Vc Vc,req)

Calculate forces acting on aircraft (L, D, T)

Equations of motion and kinematic equations

( dV/dt, dH/dt )

Integration: V = V + ( dV/dt ) * dt
H = H + ( dH / dt ) * dt
Crash boeing 727 - 1974
 Crash
B727 Northwest Orient
1 Dec 1974
Flight J.F. Kennedy Airport Buffalo
Checklist: Pitot heaters off

16000 ft IAS = 305 kts RC = 2500 ft/min

>16000 ft IAS > 340 kts RC = 5000 ft/min

Comment pilot We re light

 Crash (2)
23000 ft IAS = 405 kts RC = 6500 ft/min

Overspeed horn: Pull back and let her climb

Stick shaker: Mach Buffet
Guess well have to pull her up further

24800 ft stall @ = 30
Still pulling Deep stall
Horizontal stabiliser damaged
 Lecture 1
Unsteady quasi-rectilinear flight

1. How does a pilot perform a climb

2. Equations of motion
3. Numerical simulation
4. Analytical solutions
5. Example Exam Question
Analytical approximation of unsteady climb
Steady Climb Unsteady climb
Equation of motion // V Equation of motion // V
0 T D W sin W dV
T D W sin
g dt
Multiply with airspeed
0 Pa Pr WV sin Multiply with airspeed
W dV
Pa Pr V Pa Pr WV sin
V sin RCst g dt
W
Pa Pr V dV
V sin
Pa Pr W g dt
RCst
W V dV
RCst RC
g dt
Intermezzo
V dV V dV dh V dV
RC
g dt g dh dt g dh
Analytical approximation of unsteady climb

Unsteady climb continued

V dV
RCst RC RC
g dh

result

RC 1

RCst 1 V dV
g dh

What does this actually mean physically?

Explanation
The excess power is partially used to accelerate (kinetic
energy) and partially to climb (potential energy)

The rate of climb in an unsteady climb is therefore smaller

than in a steady climb.

RC 1 dV
; 0
RCst 1 V dV dh
g dh
 Analytical approximation of unsteady climb

RC 1 RC sin 1

RCst 1 V dV RCst sin st 1 dV 2
Alternative expression 1
g 0 dH 2 g0 dH

T CD Kinetic energy correction

sin st
W CL factor
T CD 1 dV 2
sin 1
W CL 2 g 0 dH
Lecture 1
Unsteady Climb

1. Introduction
2. Equations of motion
3. Numerical simulation
4. Analytical solutions
5. Example Exam Question
 Typical exam question
Derive the kinetic energy correction factor

Start with a clear FBD and derive all equations

 January 27, 2005, question 2
An aircraft carries out a quasi-rectilinear symmetrical climbing flight at constant
EAS in the troposphere of the ISA

Calculate at flight altitude H = 10 km the ratio between the actual rate of climb
in the unsteady climbing flight and the rate of climb in the steady climbing flight
at an instantaneous Mach number of M = 0.8 (attention M is not constant)

Carefully derive the kinetic energy correction factor for this flight using the
equations of motion in unsteady flight.

Given for the troposphere (ISA):

g
0 1
H R
0 1 ; dp g 0 dH ; p RT
T0
Solution part 1
RC 1

RC st 1 V dV
g 0 dH
Constant equivalent airspeed
0
dV E2 d 0
0 V dV 1 dV 2
1 1 VE
2

V VE 1 1 1
g 0 dH 2g 0 dH 2g 0 dH 2g 0 dH
So the derivative in the kinetic energy correction factor depends on atmospheric properties
Gas law:
p RT
0RT
d 0 d p
pRdT RTdp 1 R dT RT dp
dH dH p2
dH p dH 2
p dH
Hydrostatic equation
dp
g
dH

d 0
R dT g
dH p dH p
Solution part 2
So the correction factor becomes
VE2 R dT g V2 R dT g V 2 R dT
1+ 0 1+ E 0 1+ E 0 1
2g p dH p 2g p dH p 2g p g dH
Instantaneous Mach number is given; so rewrite:
1
V 2 M 2 RT M 2 p
0 0
VE2 0 R dT M 2 R dT
1+ 1 1 g dH 1
2g p g dH
2
Fill in the given values:
M 2 R dT 0.82 1.4 287.05
1 1 1 0.0065 1 1.36
2 g dH 2 9.81
RC 1
0.73
RC st 1.36
So, the actual rate of climb in an unsteady climb is actually only 73% of the maximum
achievable rate of climb in steady flight (for this flight condition)