FE Review

Materials Properties

Jeffrey W. Fergus
Materials Engineering
Office: 284 Wilmore
Phone: 844-3405
email: jwfergus@eng.auburn.edu
 Electrical Properties

Electrical resistance
resistance (R) = resistivity () length (l) / area (A) l
resistivity is materals property
conductivity () = 1 / resistivity () A
Temperature dependence: with increasing
temperature
Metals: resistance increases (conductivity decreases)
Semiconductors: conductivity increases (resistivity decreases)
Extrinsic: like metals in intermediate temperatures
Insulators: conductivity increases (resistivity decreases)
 Mechanical Properties

Stress-strain relationships
engineering stress and strain
stress-strain curve
Testing methods
tensile test
endurance test
impact test
 Stress
F F
Normal Shear
A A
F F F
A A A

Tension: >0 Compression: <0

 Strain
l l o l a
Strain Shear strain tan
lo lo h

l lo lo l h
 Tensile Test
thickness

Control length (l)

l l o l
Strain
lo lo

Measure force (F) with load cell

F F
width length
Stress
A w t

Reduced section used to limit

portion of sample undergoing
deformation
 Stress-Strain Curve
Ultimate Tensile Strength Force decreases due to necking

Yield Point
Elastic Limit
Stress

Proportionality
Limit

Slope = E (Youngs Modulus)

Strain
Percent Elongation
(total plastic deformation)
 0.2% Offset Yield Strength

0.2% offset
yield strength
Stress

Strain
0.2% strain
 True/Engineering Stress/Strain

Stress Strain
Engineering F l l o l
E E
(initial dimensions) Ao lo lo

True li l
F dl
(instantaneous T T ln i
Ai lo l lo
dimensions)
Using T lnE 1
and
Ai l i Ao lo
T E 1 E
True/Engineering Stress/Strain

True
True stress does not
decrease

Engineering
Stress

Decrease in engineering stress due

to decreased load required in the
reduces cross-sectional area of the
neck.

Strain
 Strain Hardening

Plastic deformation
require larger load
Stress

after deformation.
Sample dimensions
Onset of plastic are decreased, so
deformation after stress is even
reloading
higher

Strain
 Bending Test

Four-point Three-point
F/2 F/2 F w
h

L/2 L

By summing moment in cantilever beam

3FL
max
2wh 2
Tension at bottom, compression at top
 Hardness

Resistance to plastic deformation

Related to yield strength
Most common indentation test
make indentation
measure size or depth of indentation
macro- and micro- tests
Scales: Rockwell, Brinell, Vickers, Knoop
 Impact
Toughness: combination
of strength and ductility -
energy for fracture

Charpy V-notch hi
hf

Fracture energy = mghi -mghf

 Ductile-Brittle Failure

Ductile
Plastic deformation
Ductile-Brittle
cup-cone / fibrous Transition Tempeature
fracture surface (DBTT)
Brittle
little or no plastic

Fracture Energy
deformation
cleaved fracture
surface

Temperature
 Creep / Stress Relaxation

Load below yield strength - elastic deformation only

Over long time plastic deformation occurs
Requires diffusion, so usually a high-temperature
process
Activation energy, Q (or EA)

Q EA
creep rate A exp A exp
RT kT
 Creep /Stress Relaxation
Creep
F F Stress Relaxation

time time

fixed strain
F
F
fixed load Permanent deformation
 Fatigue
Repeated application of load - number of cycles, rather
than time important.
max

0 Fatigue Limit
(ferrous metals)

Stress
min
ave

max

Number of Cycles to Failure

0
min
 Corrosion Resistance
Thermodynamics vs. Kinetics
Thermodynamics - stable phases
Kinetic - rate to form stable phases
Active vs. Passive
Active: reaction products ions or gas - non protective
Passive: reaction products - protective layer
Corrosion resistance
Inert (noble): gold, platinum
Passivation: aluminum oxide (alumina) on aluminum,
chromia on stainless steel
 Electrode Potential

Tendency of metal to give up electron

Oxidation (anode)
M = M2+ + 2e- (loss electrons)
Reduction (cathode)
M2+ + 2e- = M (gain electrons)
LEO (loss electrons oxidation) goes GER (gain
electrons reduction)
 Corrosion Reactions
Oxidation - metal (anode)
M = M2+ + 2e-
Reduction - in solution (cathode)
2H+ + 2e- = H2
2H+ + O2 + 2e- = H2O
H2O + O2 + 2e- = 2OH-
Overall Reactions
M + 2H+ =M2+ + H2
M + 2H+ + O2 = M2+ + H2O
M + H2O + O2 = M2+ + 2OH- = M(OH)2
 Electromotive Force

Gibbs Free Energy (G) =-nFE (Electromotive Force)

n = number of electrons, F = Faradays Constant
Favorable: Energy decrease (-) = positive voltage
Fe2+ + 2e- = Fe: Ered = +0.440 V
Fe = Fe2+ + 2e-: Eox = -0.440 V
H2O = 2H+ + O2 +2e-: Ered = +1.229 V
Fe + 2H+ + O2 = Fe2+ + H2O: E = 0.789 V
E does not change with number of moles (G does)
E must be corrected for non-standard state
Concentration of H+ (i.e. pH), oxygen pressure
 Galvanic Corrosion / Protection
At joint between dissimilar metals
reaction rate of active metal increases
reaction of less active metal decreases
Galvanic corrosion
high corrosion rate at galvanic couple
presence of Cu increase the local corrosion rate of Fe
Galvanic protection Fe Cu
Galvanized steel
presence of Zn decreases the local corrosion rate of Fe
Galvanic protection
Mg or Zn connected to Fe decrease corrosion rate
Zn

Fe
 Waterline Corrosion
Oxygen concentration in water leads to variation in
local corrosion rates

Higher corrosion rate near

oxygen access

Rust just below water Rings of rust left from water

surface drops
 Materials Processing

Diffusion
Phase Diagrams
Gibbs phase rule
Lever rule
Eutectic system / microconstituents
Fe-Fe3C diagram (ferrous metals)
Thermal-mechanical processing
 Diffusion
Atoms moving within solid state
Required defects (e.g. vacancies)
Diffusion thermally activated
Diffusion constant follows Arrhenius relationship

Activation Energy

Q EA
D Do exp Do exp
RT kT

Boltzmans
Gas constant Temperature constant
 Steady-State Diffusion
C
Ficks first law (1-D) J D
x
J = flux (amount/area/time)
For steady state C
J D
x
mass
m 2 m3 mass
J
s m m 2s


C

x
 Phase Equilibria
Gibbs Phase Rule
P + F = C + 2 (Police Force = Cops + 2)
P = number of phases
F = degrees of freedom
C = number of components (undivided units)
2: Temperature and Pressure
One-component system
F=1+2-P=3-P
Two-component system
F=2+2-P=4-P
Two-component system at constant pressure
F=2+1-P=3-P
2 becomes 1 at constant pressure
 Pressure-Temperature Diagram
One component: H2O
Two-phase line: Change T (P) If formation of H2 and O2 were
require specific change in P (T) considered there would be two
(F=1) components (H and O)

Single-phase area: can change T

water and P independently
(F=2)
Pressure

ice Three-phase point: One occurs at

specific T and P (triple point)
water
(F=0)
vapor

Temperature
 Phase Diagrams
Two-component @ constant pressure
Three-phase - horizontal line Peritectic
L +solid (d) solid ()
d
d dL L

Eutectic
Temperature

L bL L 2 solids ( + b)

b
Eutectoid
a solid () 2 solids (a + b)
ab
a b (pure B,
A B negligible
Composition (%B)
solubility of A)
 Lever Law
Phase diagram give compositions of phases
two-phase boundaries in 2-phase mixture
Mass balance generate lever law
Solid Alloy Liquid Opposite arm over total length
Comp. Comp. Comp.
(XS) (Xalloy) (XL)
Right arm for solid
X L X alloy
%solid
Temperature

L
X L XS

Left arm for liquid

S
X alloy X S
%liquid
X L XS

A Composition (%B) B
 70 wt% Pb -30 wt% Sn
A ssessed P b - Sn p h ase d i ag r am .

First solid At 183.1C

30%Sn( alloy ) 18.3%Sn( Pb )

%liq.61.8%Sn 30%
61.8%Sn( liq.) 18.3%Sn( Pb )
256C

L (Pb)

61.8%Sn( eut .) 30%Sn( alloy )

% prim.Pb18.3%Sn 70%
61.8%Sn( eut .) 18.3%Sn( Pb )

12.8 wt% Sn
 70 wt% Pb -30 wt% Sn
A ssessed P b - Sn p h ase d i ag r am .

First solid At 182.9C

30%Sn( alloy ) 18.3%Sn( Pb )

%b97.8%Sn 15%
256C
97.8%Sn( liq.) 18.3%Sn( Pb )

(Pb)

Eutectic
(Pb)+

97.8%Sn( liq.) 30%Sn( alloy )

%Pb phase18.3%Sn 85%
97.8%Sn( liq.) 18.3%Sn( Pb )

12.8 wt% Sn
 Microconstituents
Primary Pb
61.8%Sn( eut .) 30%Sn( alloy )
%Prim.Pb18.3%Sn 70%
61.8%Sn( eut .) 18.3%Sn( Pb )

Eutectic Microsconstituent ((Pb)+bSn)

30%Sn( alloy ) 18.3%Sn( Pb )
%L61.8%Sn 30%
61.8%Sn( liq.) 18.3%Sn( Pb )

Phases in Eutectic Microsconstituent

61.8%Sn( eut .) 18.3%Sn( Pb )
%bin eut . 97.8%Sn 55%
97.8%Sn( liq.) 18.3%Sn( Pb )

97.8%Sn( liq.) 61.8%Sn( eut .)

%Pbin eut . 18.3%Sn 45%
97.8%Sn( liq.) 18.3%Sn( Pb )
 A ssessed F e- C p h ase d i ag r am .

Fe-Fe3C Phase Diagram

Austenite Cementite

Ferrite

Cast Irons

Pearlite (ferrite + cementite)

Hypoeutectoid Hypereutectoid
%C = 0.77%
Steels
 Time-Temperature-Transformation
(TTT) Diagram
Decomposition of Austenite at fixed
temperature Pearlite: High Temp
slow nucleation
800C
fs
727C
Coarse pearlite
ps pf
Temperature

Fine pearlite
Key
Main symbol Bainite:
bs bf f = ferrite Diffusion slow
p = pearlite
ms b = bainite
for pearlite
200C c = cementite
100C (Fe3C)
mf Subscripts
s = start
f = finish
Martensite
Log Time athermal (diffusionless)
 Quench / Hardenability / Tempering

Quench - rapidly cool

in steel: cool fast enough to Ms to prevent pearlite / bainite
formation
Hardenability
ease of forming martensite in steels
alloying elements inhibit pearlite / bainite formation, promote
martensite formation
Tempering of steels
reheating martensite to form transition carbides
improve toughness
 Cold Working
Plastic deformation creates dislocations, which
increases strength / decreases ductility
Reduction in Area used to quantify degree of cold
working Ai Af
%CW %RA 100%
Ai
w i l i w f lf
%RA 100%
wi li
for w f w i
l l
%RA i f 100%
li
d2 d2
i
f
d2 d2
%RA 4 4 100% i f
100%
2 2
d d
i i
4
 Cold Worked Properties
600 16

14
500

12

Percent Elongation
400
Yield Strength 10
Stress (MPa)

Tensile Strength
Percent Elongation
300 8

6
200

100
2

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Percent Cold Work
 Balancing Strength / Ductility
600 35

30
500

25

Percent Elongation
400
Yield Strength
Stress (MPa)

Tensile Strength 20
300 Percent Elongation

15

200
10
Sy > 310 MPa
100
requires 5
Elongation > 10%
%CW > 22% 0 0
requires
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Percent Cold Work %CW < 31%

Both Properties
requires
22% < %CW < 31%
 Balancing Strength / Toughness

Sy > 250 MPa 600

Yield Strength
50

and 550 Tensile Strength

Fracture Toughness
45

Kic > 16 Mpa m

Fracture Toughness (K Ic) (MPa m0.5)

500 40

requires 450 35
y = 250 MPa
13% < %CW < 39% Stress (MPa)
400 13% CW 30

350 25
KIc = 16 MPa m0.5
39% CW
300 20

250 15

Example 200 31% CW 10

for 31% CW 150

Sy = 364 MPa
KIc = 22 MPa m0.5 5
Sy = 364 MPa 100 0
Kic = 22 Mpa m 0 10 20 30 40
Percent Cold Work
50 60 70
 Cold Work / Anneal / Hot Work
Annealing can eliminate effect of cold work
recovery - stress relief, little change in properties
recrystallization - elimination of dislocations, decrease in
strength, increase in ductility
grain growth - increase in grain size, decreases both
strength and ductility
Hot working
deforming at high enough temperature for immediate
recrystallization
list cold-working and annealing at the same time
no increase in strength
used for large deformation
poor surface finish - oxidation
After hot working, cold working used to increase strength
and improve surface finish
Organization from 1996-7 Review Manual
(same topics in 2004 review manual)
Crystallography
Materials Testing
Metallurgy
 Crystallography

Crystal structure
atoms/unit cell
packing factor
coordination number
Atomic bonding
Radioactive decay
 Bravais Lattice
Crystal System Centering
(x,y,z): Fractional coordinates -
proportion of axis length, not
absolute distanct

P: Primitive: (x,y,z)
I: Body-centered: (x,y,z); (x+,y+,z+)
c
C: Base-centered: (x,y,z); (x+,y+,z)
F: Face-centered: (x,y,z); (x+,y+,z)
b a b (x+,y,z+); (x,y+,z+)

a Centering must apply to all atoms
in unit cell.
 Bravais Lattices (14)
Crystal Primitive Body- Face- Base-
Parameters
System (Simple) Centered Centered Centered
abc
Cubic X X X
ab
abc
Tetragonal X X
ab
abc
Orthorhombic X X X X
ab
abc
Rhombohedral X
ab
abc
Hexagonal X
ab
abc
Monoclinic X X
a b
abc
Triclinic X
ab
 Atoms Per Unit Cell
Corners - shared by eight unit
cells (x 1/8)
(0,0,0)=(1,0,0)=(0,1,0)=(0,0,1)=(1,1,0)
=(1,0,1)=(0,1,1)=(1,1,1)
Edges - shared by four unit cells
(x 1/4)
(0,0,)= (1,0,)= (0,1,)= (1,1,)
Faces - shared by two unit cells (x
1/2)
(,,0)= (,,1)
 Common Metal Structures
Face-Centered Cubic (FCC)
8 corners x 1/8 + 6 faces x 1/2
1 + 3 = 4 atoms/u.c.
Body-Centered Cubic (BCC)
8 corners x 1/8 + 1 center
1 + 1 = 2 atoms/u.c.
Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP)
8 corners x 1/8 + 1 middle
1 + 1 = 2 atoms/u.c.
12 hex. Corner x 1/6 +2 face x 1/2 + 3
middle = 6 atoms/u.c.
 Packing Factor
Fraction of space occupied by atoms P.F .
4
3 ri 3
a b c
For FCC
4
face diagonal a 2 a 2 4 r a r
a 2
r
a P .F .
4 34 r 3 4 34 r 3
0.74
For BCC a 3
4
3 3 2

2
4
body diagonal a2 a2 a2 4 r a r
3

P .F .
2 34 r 3 2 34 r 3 3
0.68
3 3 8
a 4

3
 Density
atom mass

Density u.c. mole

mass
atom volume volume

mole u.c.
For nickel:
- Atomic weight = 58.71 g/mole
- Lattice parameter = 3.5239 =3.5239 x 10-8 cm
- Avogadros No. = 6.02 x 1023 = 0.602 x 1024 = atoms/mole

4 atom g

58 . 71
Density u .c . mole 8.915
g

0.602 x 10

24 atom

mole

8
3.5239 x 10 cm
3 cm 3
 Close Packed (CN=12)
Highest packing density for same sized spheres
FCC and HCP structures
 Cube Center (CN=8)
Same atoms: BCC
Different atoms: CsCl
 Octahedral Site (CN=6)
In FCC:
- Center (,,)
- Edges (0,0,),(0,,0),(,0,0)
- 4 per unit cell
- All filled - NaCl structure

8-sided shape
 Tetrahedral Site (CN=4)
In FCC:
- Divide cell into 8 boxes - center of small box
- (,,),(,,),(,,),(,,)
(,, )(,, ),(,, )(,, )
-8 per unit cell
-All filled - CaF2 structure; half-filled - ZnS

4-sided shape
 Radius Ratio Rules
Critical radius is size of atom which just fits in site
Define minimum for bonding (i.e. atoms must touch to bond)

CN 8
Critical Radius for CN 8 = 0.732
CN 6
Critical Radius for CN 6 = 0.414
CN 4
Critical Radius for CN 4 = 0.225
CN 3
planar
 Close Packed Plane
A A B A B C

HCP: ABABABABABABABAB
FCC: ABCABCABCABCABC
Same packing density (0.74)
Same coordination (CN=12)
 Miller Indices
(hkl) specific - No commas
Planes - No fractions
{hkl} family
- Negative
[hkl] specific indicated by bar
Directions
<hkl> family over number

A family of planes includes all planes which are

equivalent by symmetry - depends on crystal system.
- For cubic: (110),(011) and (101) are all {110}
- For tetragonal: (011) and (101) are {101}
but (110) is not (ca)
 Miller Indices - Directions
c

b -1 1/2
a

x y z
-1/3 1/2 -1 -1/3 (x 6)
3 6 2

1/2
1 x y z
1 1/4 1/2 (x 4)
4 1 2
1/4
 Miller Indices - Planes
c c
1 1
b 4 b 4
a a

1 1
2 2

x y z
intercept 1/4 -1/2
reciprocal 4 0 -2
4 0 2
 Miller Indices - Planes
c
c
1 b
1
3 a
3
b
a
1 1
4 4

1 1
2 2

x y z
intercept 1/4 -1/3 -1/2
reciprocal 4 -3 -2
4 3 2
 Atomic Bonding

Covalent Metallic
sharing electrons metal ions in sea or
strong electrons
directional moderately strong
Ionic non-directional
trading of electrons Secondary
electrostatic attraction or Van der Waals
ions H-bonding
strong electrostatic attraction of
non-directional electric dipole (local
charge distribution
weak
 Radioactive Decay
Loss of electrons/protons/neutrons
alpha - 2 protons / two neutrons (i.e He nucleus)
beta - electrons
gamma - energy time
Exponential decay t
N No exp
time constant

t1 1 No t1
N 21 No No exp 2 ln 2 ln2 2
No
ln2
amount

t ln2 0.693 t
N No exp No exp
t1 t1 half life
original amount 2 2