2.2 How Do Atoms Interact to Form Molecules? p. 23 2.3 Why is Water So Important to Life? p. 28 Section 2.1 Outline
2.1 What Are Atoms?
Atoms Are Basic Structural Units Composed of Still Smaller Particles Electrons Orbit the Nucleus at Fixed Distances Life Depends on the Ability of Electrons to Capture and Release Energy Atoms
Atoms are the fundamental structural
units of matter and are composed of three types of particles In the central nucleus there are positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons In orbit around the nucleus are negatively charged particles called electrons Atoms
Atoms are electrically neutral because
they have an equal number of positive protons as negative electrons Atoms
The number of protons in the nucleus of
an atom is known as the atomic number Elements and Isotopes
An element is a substance that cannot be
broken down by ordinary chemical reactions All atoms belong to one of 96 types of naturally occurring elements Elements and Isotopes
The atomic number (number of protons) is
the defining value for an element All atoms of an element have the same atomic number e.g. Carbon has 6 protons, nitrogen has 7 Elements and Isotopes Atoms of an element may vary in the number of neutrons they have in the nucleus Variant atomic forms of an element are called isotopes Some isotopes are radioactive and are used in research Elements may occur as solids, liquids, or gases at room temperature Electron Shells Larger atoms can accommodate more electrons than smaller ones can Electrons are distributed about the nucleus of an atom in electron shells The first shell or energy level holds 2 electrons The second shell holds up to 8 Electron Shells Roles of the nucleus and the electrons The nucleus provides stability The electrons interact with other atoms (e.g. form bonds) Energy Capture and Release Life depends on electrons capturing and releasing energy Electron shells correspond to energy levels Energy exciting an atom causes an electron jump from a lower- to higher-energy shell Later, the electron falls back into its original shell, releasing the energy Section 2.2 Outline
2.2 How Do Atoms Interact to Form
Molecules? Atoms Interact When There Are Outermost Electron Shell Vacancies Charged Atoms (Ions) Form Ionic Bonds Uncharged Atoms Can Stabilize by Forming Covalent Bonds Most Biological Molecules Feature Covalent Bonds Electron Sharing Determines Covalent Bond Polarity Highly Reactive Free Radicals Can Damage Cells Hydrogen Bonds Are Weak Attractions Within Some Covalently-Bonded Molecules Atoms Interact Molecules are made of two or more atoms bonded together through electron shell interactions A substance made of atoms of different elements is a compound Atoms Interact Reactions between atoms depend upon the configuration of electrons in the outermost electron shell Atoms Interact Atoms will not react with other atoms if the outermost shell is completely empty or full (such atoms considered inert) Example: Neon, with 8 electrons in outermost shell (full) Atoms Interact Atoms will react with other atoms if the outermost shell is partially full (such atoms considered reactive) Example: Oxygen, with 6 electrons in outermost shell (can hold 2 more electrons) Atoms Interact Reactive atoms gain stability by electron interactions (chemical reactions) Electrons can be lost to empty the outermost shell Electrons can be gained to fill the outermost shell Electrons can be shared with another atom where both atoms have full outermost shells Atoms Interact Hydrogen and oxygen atoms gain stability by interacting with each other Single electrons from each of two hydrogen molecules fill the outer shell of an oxygen atom Atoms Interact Attractive forces (chemical bonds) hold atoms together in molecules Ions and Ionic Bonds Atoms that have lost electrons become positively charged ions (e.g. sodium: Na+) Atoms that have gained electrons become negatively charged ions (e.g. chlorine: Cl-) Ions and Ionic Bonds Oppositely charged ions are attracted to each other are bound into a molecule by ionic bonds Ions and Ionic Bonds Salt crystals are repeated, orderly arranged sodium and chloride ions Covalent Bonds
Atoms with partially full outer electron
shells can share electrons Two electrons (one from each atom) are shared in a covalent bond Covalent Bonds
Covalent bonds are found in H2 (single
bond), O2 (double bond), N2 (triple bond) and H2O Covalent bonds are stronger than ionic bonds but vary in their stability Covalent Bonds
Most biological molecules contain covalent
bonds Polar Covalent Bonds
Atoms within a molecule may have
different nuclear charges Those atoms with greater positive nuclear charge pull more strongly on electrons in a covalent bond Polar Covalent Bonds
In diatomic molecules like H2, both atoms
exert the same pulling force on bond electrons: the covalent bond is nonpolar Polar Covalent Bonds
In molecules where atoms of different
elements are involved (H2O), the electrons are not always equally shared: these covalent bonds are polar Polar Covalent Bonds
A molecule with polar bonds may be polar
overall H2O is a polar molecule The (slightly) positively charged pole is around each hydrogen The (slightly) negatively charged pole is around the oxygen Polar Covalent Bonds
Polar/nonpolar bonding is illustrated in
Figure 2-6 (a) and (b), p, 26 Free Radicals
Some cellular reactions produce free
radicals Free radical: a molecule whose atoms have one or more unpaired electrons in their outer shells Free Radicals
Free radicals are highly unstable and
reactive Free radicals steal electrons, destroying other molecules Cell death can occur from free radical attack Free Radicals
Free radicals are involved in causing heart
disease, Alzheimers, cancer, and aging Antioxidants like vitamins C and E render free radicals harmless Hydrogen Bonds
Polar molecules like water have partially
charged atoms at their ends Hydrogen bonds form when partial opposite charges in different molecules attract each other The partially positive hydrogens of one water molecule are attracted to the partially negative oxygen on another Hydrogen Bonds
Polar biological molecules can form
hydrogen bonds with water, each other, or even within the same molecule Hydrogen bonds are rather weak but can collectively be quite strong Section 2.3 Outline
2.3 Why Is Water So Important to Life?
Water Interacts with Many Other Molecules Water Molecules Tend to Stick Together Water-Based Solutions Can Be Acidic, Basic, or Neutral Buffers Help Maintain Relatively Constant pH Water Moderates the Effects of Temperature Change Water Forms an Unusual Solid: Ice Water Interacts with Many Molecules
Water is an excellent solvent
A wide range of substances dissolve in water to form solutions Water Interacts with Many Molecules
Water-soluble molecules are hydrophilic
Water molecules are attracted to and can surround ions or polar molecules (dissolving them), such as sugars and amino acids Water Interacts with Many Molecules
Water-insoluble molecules are
hydrophobic Water molecules repel and drive together uncharged and nonpolar molecules like fats and oils The clumping of nonpolar molecules is called hydrophobic interaction Water Molecules Tend to Stick Together
Hydrogen bonding between water
molecules produces high cohesion Water cohesion explains how water molecules can form a chain in delivering moisture to the top of a tree Water Molecules Tend to Stick Together
Cohesion of water molecules along a
surface produces surface tension Fishing spiders and water striders rely on surface tension to move across the surface of ponds Water Molecules Tend to Stick Together
Water molecules stick to polar or charged
surfaces in the property called adhesion Adhesion helps water climb up the thin tubes of plants to the leaves Acid, Basic, and Neutral Solutions
A small fraction of water molecules break
apart into ions: H2O OH- + H+ Acid, Basic, and Neutral Solutions
Solutions where H+ > OH- are acidic
e.g. Hydrochloric acid ionizes in water: HCl H+ + Cl- Lemon juice and vinegar are naturally produced acids Acid, Basic, and Neutral Solutions
Solutions where OH- > H+ are basic
e.g. Sodium hydroxide ionizes in water: NaOH Na+ + OH- Baking soda, chlorine bleach, and ammonia are basic Acid, Basic, and Neutral Solutions
The degree of acidity of a solution is
measured using the pH scale pHs 0-6 are acidic (H+ > OH-) pH 7 is neutral (H+ = OH-) pH 8-14 is basic (OH- > H+) Buffers Maintain Constant pH
A buffer is a compound that accepts or
releases H+ in response to pH change The bicarbonate buffer found in our bloodstream prevents pH change Buffers Maintain Constant pH
If the blood becomes too acidic,
bicarbonate accepts (and absorbs) H+ to make carbonic acid HCO3- + H+ H2CO3 bicarbonate hydrogen ion carbonic acid Buffers Maintain Constant pH
If the blood becomes too basic, carbonic
acid liberates hydrogen ions to combine with OH- to form water H2CO3 + OH- HCO3- + H2O carbonic acid hydroxide ion bicarbonate water Water Stabilizes Temperature
Very low or very high temperatures may
damage enzymes or slow down important chemical reactions Water Stabilizes Temperature
Water moderates the effect of temperature
change Temperature reflects the speed of molecular motion It requires 1 calorie of energy to raise the temperature of 1g of water 1oC (the specific heat of water), so it heats up very slowly Water Stabilizes Temperature
Water requires a lot of energy to turn from
liquid into a gas (heat of vaporization) Evaporating water uses up heat from its surroundings, cooling the nearby environment (as occurs during sweating) Water Stabilizes Temperature Because the human body is mostly water, a sunbather can absorb a lot of heat energy without sending her/his body temperature soaring Water Stabilizes Temperature
Water requires a lot of energy to be
withdrawn in order to freeze (heat of fusion) Water freezes more slowly than other liquids Water Forms an Unusual Solid: Ice
Most substances become denser when
they solidify from a liquid Ice is unusual because it is less dense than liquid water Water Forms an Unusual Solid: Ice
Water molecules spread apart slightly
during the freezing process Water Forms an Unusual Solid: Ice
Ice floats in liquid water
Ponds and lakes freeze from the top down and never freeze completely to the bottom Many plants and fish therefore are not frozen